????????? Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughts

1
?????????Schools of Linguistics some random
thoughts

• ???????
• ??????????
• ???

2
?????????

• ???,?????????, ?????,??????(ideas) ????
• ?????,????????????????,???????????????,????????
• ???????????,?????????????,??????????,????????

3
1. ???????

• 1.1 ??????, ?????, ????,
• ????, ????, ????,???
• ?, ????????(?????????????????)
• Schools refer to trends of thought, with their
  representative figures, works, unique ideas,
  methods and influence on later development a
  diachronic perspective.

4
???????

• 1.2 ??????, ????, ??????, ??????,
  ?????????????????????
• (Branches refer to areas of study, with their
  classics, and influential figures often a
  synchronic perspective.)

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1. ???????

• 1.3 ????????? ?? ????????, ?????.
• The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will
  form a cross, which like a coordinate.

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Distinction between Schools and Branches
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1. ???????

• 1.2 ?????? Branches
• ???????, ??(?)?, ???, ?? ?, ???, ???, ???(?)
  Distinction from within phonetics, phonology,
  lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic,
  pragmatics (?)

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1. ???????

• ???? ?????, ?????, ???
• ??, ?????, ?????, ????
• ?,???????? Distinction from without
  psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation
  linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological
  linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus
  linguistics, etc.

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1. ???????

• ??? ?????, ????? Theoretical linguistics and
  applied linguistics.

10
1. ???????

• 1.3 ?????
• ???? (600BC18??)traditional grammar
• ?????(19??100?) historical linguistics
• ???????(???, 20???) the beginning of modern
  linguistics

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1. ???????

• ??????(20??20-50)European functionalism
• ????(194050)The London School
• ??????(1960??) Hallidays Systemic-functional
  grammar

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1. ???????

• ?????????(193050) American structuralism
• ????????(1957?) Chomskys Generative Grammar
• ????? (today)
• Cognitive linguistics

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2. ?????? A More Macro Distinction

• 2.1 ???
• ?????????, ??, ????????,
  ????????????????, ????????.
• The formal school emphasize the formal,
  structural aspects of L, and distribution of
  elements formalize the description of L a
  psychological perspective.

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2. ?????? A More Macro Distinction

• 2.2 ???
• ?????????, ???????????????, ????????,
  ????????. The functional school emphasize the
  functional nature of L analyze the semantic
  function of elements on all levels function
  determines form a sociolinguistic perspective.

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2. ?????? A More Macro Distinction

• 2.3 ?????
• ???????????????????????????. The formal camp say
  language is a psychological fact the functional
  camp say language is a social fact.

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2. ?????? A More Macro Distinction

• 2. ??????????????????????????????????????. The
  formal camp say linguistic universals are mens
  biological inheritance the functional camp say
  language similarities come from the common use of
  language.

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2. ?????? A More Macro Distinction

• 3.????? ????????????????????????????????????.
  The formal camp say that children are born with
  the ability to acquire language the functional
  camp say that language learning comes from
  childrens needs and development.

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2. ?????? A More Macro Distinction

• 4.??????????????????????????????????
• The formalists regard language as an independent
  system the formalists study language in the
  social context by referring to its social
  function.

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2.??????

• 2.4 ??? 20??????????????????????????????????????
  ???????(????, ???????),?????????????(????,
  ????????)???????????????, ???????????????(????????
  )??????????,???(???????)????????(????????),??????
  ???????

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2.??????

• Halliday The basic opposition is not that
  between structural and generative grammars .
  The more fundamental opposition is between those
  that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by
  and large the formal grammars, with their roots
  in logic and philosophy)

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2.??????

• and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and
  large the functional ones, with their roots in
  rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a
  language a list of structures, among which,
  regular relationships may be established

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2.??????

• (hence the introduction of transformation) they
  tend to emphasize universal features of language,
  to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the
  foundation of language (hence the grammar is
  arbitrary), and so to be organized around the
  sentence.

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2.??????

• ??????????????,??????????????????????????,???????
  ???(????????),?????????????????????????????,??????
  , ?????????????,?????????????

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2.??????

• The functionalists interpret language as a
  network of relations, with structures coming in
  as the realization of these relationships they
  tend to emphasize variables among languages, to
  take semantics as the foundation (hence the
  grammar is natural), and so to be organized
  around the text, or discourse.

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2.??????

• There are many cross-currents, with insights
  borrowed from one to the other but they are
  ideologically fairly difficult and it is often
  difficulty to maintain a dialogue.

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2.??????

• ???????????????,????????????????????,
  ?????????????????????,?????????????????????/??,?
  ???????????????????????,???????????

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2.??????

• Halliday In general the functional approach
  leans towards the applied rather than the pure,
  the rhetorical rather than the logical, the
  actual rather the ideal, the functional rather
  than the formal, the text rather than the
  sentence.

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2.??????

• The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of
  action, a theory of language as a means of
  getting things done.
• ?????????? ?????, ???????????????????, ???
  ???????????????, ???, ???, ??,??,???????,?????

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3. ????????Significance of the Two

• Its more theoretically significant to study
  schools they involve philosophy, psychology
  (blank slate/content approach), and methodology
  (induction, deduction,verification,
• falsification, abduction).

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3. ????????Significance of the Two

• ?????????? ????????????, ???????????????????,???
  ???.
• Its more significant in practice to study the
  various branches of linguistics, not without
  theoretical significance.

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3. ????????Significance of the Two

• ?????, ??????????, ???????????????????,??????????
  ?
• In any discipline we should take seriously both
  basic, pure research and applied research. Both
  are useful and important.

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5. ???? ????

• 4.1 ???? ????????, ???????????????????, ????,
  ???????,???????,???????????,????
  ???????????(?????????).
• Traditional Grammar focus on phonetics and
  words school grammar, prescriptive influential
  its terms still in use today.

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5. ?????????

• 4.2 ????? ????,????,????, ??????????????????20??
  ?????????????20??????????????
• Historical Linguistics language comparison,
  family trees of languages laws of sound change
  Neogrammarians paved the way for modern
  linguistics in the 20th century.

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5. ?????????
35
5. ?????????
36
(No Transcript)
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6. ???????????

• 4.3 ??? ???????????????,???????????,
  ????????,?????????? ???????, ??????(????????????)
  ?????????????.???????. Saussure father of
  modern linguistics language/speech
  arbitrariness of language synchronic/diachronic
  signifier/signified system of signs

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???? E. Durkheim
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???? Sigmund Freud
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6. ???????????

• ????? Ernst Cassirer???????????? In the whole
  history of science there is perhaps no more
  fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new
  science of linguistics. In its importance it may
  very well be compared to the new science of
  Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our
  whole concept of the physical world.

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7. ??????????

• 4.4 ?????? ?????,???????????,????????????????
  ?????????????
• Functional schools in Europe the Prague School
  the Copenhagen School contribution to phonology
  given/new information theme/rheme
  topic/comment
• influential around 1920-40

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8. ???? ??????

• 4.5 ?????? ???, ???,?????, ???,???? ???-?????,
  ???????????????? ??? ????????? American
  structuralism F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard
  Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the
  Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,
  blank slate, behaviorism in psychology.

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??? Boaz
44
??? Sapir
45
L. Bloomfield

• ?????

46
?? Wundt
47
?? Watson
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??? Skinner
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8. ??????????

• ??? ????,???,???????,????? ???,??????????
  ????????????.?????16???????????.
• Rigid procedure of discovery, binary cutting,
  ignore meaning distribution of elements
  emphasis on evidence than impression
  audio-lingual method in teaching design features
  of language.

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9. ????????????

• 4.5 ???????????
• ????????????, ????????,????????
  ??????,??????????????????????? Chomskys
  Generative grammar a revolution rationalism in
  philosophy cognitive psychology language is
  innate initial state of mind reveal nature of L
  to show nature of man.

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???? Chomsky
52
????????????

• ??????Chomkys position is not only unique
  within linguistics at the present time, but is
  probably unprecedented in the whole history of
  the subjectRight or wrong, Chomskys theory of
  grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and
  influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep
  abreast of current developments in his subject
  can afford to ignore Chomskys theoretical
  pronouncements. John Lyons

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Chomsky

• It seems plain that language acquisition is
  based on the childs discovery of what from a
  formal point of view is a deep and abstract
  theory a generative grammar of his language
  many of the concepts and principles of which are
  only remotely related to experience by long and
  intricate chains of the unconscious
  quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the
  character of the grammar that is acquired, the

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Chomsky

• degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of
  the available data, the striking uniformity of
  the resulting grammar, and their independence of
  intelligence, motivation, and emotional state,
  over wide range of variation, leave little hope
  that much of the structure of the language can be
  learned by an organism initially uninformed as to
  its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of
  the theory of syntax)

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• ??,?????????????????????????????????????????????
  ????????????????????????,?????????
  ??????????????,????????????????,??????????????????
  ?,?????????????,?????????????,???????,????????????
  ???,?????????????? ??,1965 ???????

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9. ????????????

• ?????????????,?????????, ????,
  ?????????,?????????????,???,?????,????, ????.
  To formalize the description of L independence
  of syntax emphasis on explanatory power
  contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer
  science biology bio-linguistics

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Chomsky????

• In The Architecture of Language (200250) he
  wrote Lots of people reject the proposal that
  language is innate but nobody answers them. The
  reason why nobody answers is that their arguments
  would make no sense. Theres no way to answer
  them. To say that language is not innate is to
  say that there is no difference between my
  granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other
  words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and

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Chomsky????

• my granddaughter and put them in a community
  where people are talking English, theyll all
  learn English. If people believe that, then they
  believe that language is not innate. If they
  believe that there is a difference between my
  granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they
  believe that language is innate.

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Chomsky????

• Chomsky (1988) teaching should not be compared
  to filling a bottle with water but rather to
  helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any
  good teacher knows, the methods of instruction
  and range of material covered are of small
  important as compared with the success in
  arousing the natural curiosity of the
  students?????????? and stimulating their interest
  in

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Chomsky????

• exploring on their own????????????. What the
  students learn passively will be quickly
  forgotten. What the students discover for
  themselves when their natural curiosity and
  creative impulses are aroused not only will be
  remembered but will be the basis for further
  exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant
  intellectual contributions.

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10. ???????????

• 4.6?????? ???????????,?????????????????,????????
  ???Daniel Jones ??????Henry Sweet?????
• ???????????????????????, ??, ????.?????.
  ????????????? ??????????????????????????

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10. ???????????

• The London School Britain has a long tradition
  of language studies. The great phoneticians Henry
  Sweet, Daniel Jones? Malinovki, J.R. Firth,
  M.A.K. Halliday meaning is use context
  determines meaning emphasis on both structure
  and system linguistic potential and actual
  behavior paradigmatic/ syntagmatic relations
  types of functions of language

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Malinovski ??????
64

• ??
• J. R. Firth

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M.A.K. Halliday

• ???
• MAK Halliday

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10. ???????????

• ??????????????.?????????????.????????????????.
  ?????????????. Language is a system of many
  sub-systems three macro function of language
  (ideational, interpersonal, textual function)
  childrens seven functions contribution to
  language teaching and stylistics popular in
  China.

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????

• The material process action and event.
• The transitivity system????? material process,
  mental process, relational process, verbal and
  behavioral process, existential process.
• The action process intention process and
  supervention process.
• The mental process internalized process and
  externalized process.

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????

• The internalized process 1. perception, 2.
  reaction and 3. cognition processes. (p.322)
• There are realization relationships between
  various levels. The choice of meaning is realized
  by the choice of form, which in turn is realized
  by the choice of sounds. What can be done is
  realized by what can be meant, which is realized
  by what can be said.

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????

• Functions of Childrens Language
• The instrumental function to meet his material
  needs and services(??)
• The regulatory function to control others
  behavior(??)
• The interactional function to talk with
  others(??)
• The personal function to express his
  feelings(????)

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????

• 5. The heuristic function to know about his own
  surroundings(??)
• 6. The imaginative function to create
  surroundings(??)
• 7. The informative function to provide
  information for others.(??)
• The adults language has to serve many functions,
  these are gradually reduced to a set of highly
  coded and abstract functions.

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????

• Functions of adults language Ideational
  function, interpersonal function and textual
  function.??????????????
• The Ideational function( ????) to convey new
  information unknown to the hearer. It is the
  meaning potential, used in all languages. It is
  to refer to categories of experience of the
  world.

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????

• 2.The interpersonal function(????) it embodies
  all the uses of language to express social and
  personal relations the ways the speaker enters
  into a speech situation and performs a speech
  act. It is realized by mood?? and modality??.

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????

• The Textual Function(????) Language has
  mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or
  written discourse into a coherent and unified
  text and make a living message different from a
  random list of sentences. John saw a handbag in
  a field. John walked across a field and picked up
  a handbag.John took a handbag to the police
  station and John handed a handbag to a policeman.

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11. ????? ?????

• ????? ????????? ??????? ??20??70??,
  ?????????????, ????????????????????, ??,???,
  ???,????????. ??????????,????????????????????,
  ?????????????. ?? ????, Talmy, Jackendoff,
  Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson,
  Fillmore,Talor?.

75
??? George Lakoff
76
??? George Lakoff

• "We are neural beings," states Berkeley cognitive
  scientist George Lakoff. "Our brains take their
  input from the rest of our bodies. What our
  bodies are like and how they function in the
  world thus structures the very concepts we can
  use to think. We cannot think just anything -
  only what our embodied brains permit."

77

• L. Talmy
• Ph.D.Berkerley
• Pioneering work
• In cognitive
• linguistics

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11. ????? ?????

• I am not if this is a new school or what. People
  say language and its use are based on our bodily
  experience and the way to conceptualize it is
  called cognitive linguistics. It is a new
  approach to the study of language and mind.
  Topics include structure of characterization
  (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual
  interface between syntax and..

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11. ??????????

• semantics, the experiential and pragmatic
  background of language-in-use, and the
  relationship between language and thought.

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11. ??????????

• ?????????? ?????????????? ???????????(?????).
• ???? ???, ????, ??, ???, ???, ????.
• ???? ???, ???, ???, ?????,????????.
• ????? ?????,?????

81
11. ??????????

• Principles semantic structure has no universals
  syntax is not independent syntax and vocabulary
  form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in
  meaning.
• Areas characterization, metaphor, polysemy,
  iconicity, grammatization etc.
• Highly cross-disciplinary philosophy,
  psychology, computer science, neurology,
  anthropology etc.

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??? Talmys work

• Cognitive semantics
• ????? There are some houses in the valley.
  There is a house every now and then through the
  valley.
• ???? The bike is near the house . The house
  is near the bike.
• ??? The ball rolled along the green. The
  ball kept rolling along the green.

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??? Talmys work

• ???????The beacon flashed.
• The beacon kept flashing.
• The beacon flashed 5 times in a row.
• The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a
  stretch.
• The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch
  for 3 hours.

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??? Talmys work

• Toward a Cognitive Semantics
• Cambridge, MA MIT Press 2000
• Volume I     Concept Structuring Systems
• Part 1 Foundations of Conceptual Structuring in
  LanguageCh. 1 The Relation of Grammar to
  CognitionPart 2 Configurational StructureCh. 2
  Fictive Motion in Language and "Ception"Ch. 3
  How Language Structures Space

85
??? Talmys work

• Part 3 AttentionCh. 4 The Windowing of
  Attention in LanguageCh. 5 Figure and Ground in
  LanguageCh. 6 Structures that Relate EventsPart
  4 Force and CausationCh. 7 Force Dynamics in
  Language and CognitionCh. 8 The Semantics of
  Causation
• References Index

86
??? Talmys work

• Volume II     Typology and Process in Concept
  Structuring
• Part 1 Typological Patterns in the
  Representation of Event StructureCh. 1
  Lexicalization PatternsCh. 2 Surveying
  Lexicalization PatternsCh. 3 A Typology of Event
  IntegrationCh. 4 Borrowing Semantic Space
  Diachronic Hybridization

87
??? Talmys work

• Part 3 Other Cognitive SystemsCh. 7 The
  Cognitive Culture SystemCh. 8 A Cognitive
  Framework for Narrative StructurePart 2
  Semantic InteractionCh. 5 Semantic Conflict and
  ResolutionCh. 6 Communicative Goals and Means
  Their Cognitive Interaction
• ReferencesIndex

88
??? Lakoffs work

• They began to think of expressions like Its
  been a long bumpy road, The marriage is on the
  rock, Its off the track, Were spinning our
  wheels, Were going in different directions,
  We are at a crossroads in the relationship.
  Then they generalized In every case, the love
  relationship is a vehicle. In every case, the
  common life goals of the lovers are destinations
  they want to get to together. And in every case
  the difficulties in the relationship are things

89
??? Lakoffs work

• that keep them from reaching the destination
  spinning wheels, dead-end street, going in
  different directions, and so on. The travelers
  mapped the lovers, vehicles the mapped
  relationships. This is a kind of mathematical
  mapping. The reasoning that you do about travel
  is mapped onto the reasoning you do about love.
  LOVE IS A JOURNEY is exactly in the mapping.

90
??? Lakoffs work

• What is a concept in the brain? How do we get
  concept and how do we get complicated concepts
  like grasping, and how do we get abstract concept
  like grasping ideas or causation or something
  like that? So the idea is this meaning is mental
  stimulation in the brain using your physical
  brain. Mental stimulation is imagining something.
  So if I give you a sentence like John picked up
  the bottle, in order to understand that
  sentence, you have to at

91
??? Lakoffs work

• least be able to imagine someone picking up the
  bottle. If you cannot even imagine it, then you
  cannot understand the sentence. So understanding
  requires imagining something as if you were doing
  it, seeing it. that requires the same part of the
  brain as doing it or seeing it.
• How does that relate to the world? A concept is
  the minimal unit of linguistic meaning, the
  meaning of words are made up of concepts. There
  is a minimal unit of reasoning, which uses
  concepts.

92
??? Lakoffs work

• The same part of the brain that moves your body
  also reasons about aspect. We call our theory
  simulation semantics because it says meaning is
  mental simulation using those parts of the brain
  that you use for the imagination of both seeing
  and acting. So concepts have an internal
  structure called neural parameters. And neural
  parameter is something as discovered in the
  neural system. For example, something like
  reaching for an object makes use of the parameter
  of direction.

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11. ??????????

• Lakoff, George. 1987. Women, Fire, and Dangerous
  Things. What Categories Reveal about the Mind.
  Chicago University of Chicago Press.
• Lakoff G JohnsonM(1999). Philosophy in the
  Flesh the Embodied Mind and its Challenge to
  Western Thought. NY Basic Books.
• Langacker R (2002). Concept, Image, and Symbol
  the Cognitive Basis of Grammar. Berlin/NY Mouton
  de Gruyter.

94
12. ???

• ???,???????,???, 1995?
• Liu Runqing Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories
  of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press,
  200 4

95
12. ???

• Liu Running Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics
  Ninety Years since Saussure . (???,???????????
  . ???,2009
• ???,?????????
• ???,2005 (in English)