Producers or Consumers?

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EARNING A LIVING IN POMPEII

• Producers or Consumers?

2

• The location of Pompeii as a port and central
  to the fertile Campanian hinterland and Italian
  penninsula ensured its vibrant and cosmopolitan
  economic activity in primary secondary and
  tertiary activity. The excavation of up to 600
  shops indicates the scale of such economic
  activity
• Profit is Joy

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PRODUCERS-Profit is Joy

• The traditional view was that the purpose of
  Pompeian economic activity was the production of
  material wealth for consumption by the local
  population.
• Current debate centres around the possibility of
  some export and import trade, particularly with
  wine and olives
• Production, however , rarely went beyond the
  scale of the household.
• The production of staple food, bread , wine,
  grapes and fish sauce, combined with processing
  industries in cloth manufacture, metallurgy,
  wheelwrights and potters served to create self
  sufficiency

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• The cost of transport, dependence on local
  resources and slavery all served to limit
  expansion
• Pompeiis position , near the sea and the
  navigable river Sarno did encourage some trade
• The economy of Pompeii encompassed Primary,
  Secondary and Tertiary levels of Production
• Major industries were Wine, Olives, Wool and
  Textiles
• Smaller industries were fish sauce, pottery,
  perfume, Soap, Metal work

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Primary Production Wine ProductionVilla
Rusticae at Boscoreale
The villa was excavated between 1978-1980. It is
made up of 10 rooms, loosely arranged around a
courtyard, which had 18 sunken dolia, which could
have held a maximum of 10,000 litres of
fermenting wine. Although viticulture was the
most important activity other vines and trees eg
oloves, almond, fig, apricot, cherry and walnut
were found
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Model of Villa at Boscoreale museum
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AMPHORAE EVIDENCE
The names of several types of wine grown on the
slopes of Vesuvius are known from literature.
Horconian wine, possibly thought to be connected
to the Holconian family of Pompeii and Vesuvinum
has been found on amphorae located in both
Pompeii and Carthage. Pompeian wine amphorae have
also been found in Ostia, Spain, Alesia, Germany
and as far as Britain.
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VETTI BROTHERSWine Production and the Villa of
Mysteries
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House of the Ship Europa
From the 1960s Jashemskis ground breaking study
of root cavities revealed the existence of food
producing areas such as commercial market gardens
within the walls of Pompeii Excavation of the
gardens of this house revealed extensive
plantings of not only grape vines but also fruit
and nut trees as well as vegetables. The range
and extent suggested commercial production but
probably sold at the local markets Animal bones
were also found from dog, sheep, goats, pig and
chicken
10
OLIVE PROCESSINGTable Olives and Olive Oil
Processing of oil seems concentrated in rural
areas where large quantities could be extracted
using the lever and windlass type press commonly
used for pressing grapes, such as has been found
in the Villa of the Mysteries just outside
Pompeii's Herculaneum Gate. These presses were
expensive and so were probably reserved for high
volume production on villas and not for household
use in the city. Following separation from the
amurca, the oil was placed in amphorae and then
taken into town to be distributed or sold in the
market.
In a handbook on Agriculture Cato, a Roman
politician recommends Pompeian oil presses as the
best
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Garum- Fish Sauce

• Because the the garum vats would have smelled
  particularly unpleasant, scholars think that
  garum production did not take place within the
  walls but instead at Pompeiis port facility on
  the Sarno River
• Inscriptions painted on pottery vessels reveal
  the name Aulus Umbricius Scaurus, who ran a
  number of workshops producing Garum. Around 30
  of inscriptions on fish sauce containers in
  Campania relate to his workshops

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VATS FOR FISH SAUCE
Containers called urcei
The entrails of sprats or sardineswere mixed
with finely chopped portions of fish and roe and
eggs and then pounded, crushed and stirred. The
mixture was left in the sun and beaten into a
pulp when fermented. Michael Grant
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SECONDARY PRODUCTION

• Most primary production took place in the rural
  hinterland although Jashemskis studies using
  pollen and seed analyses indicate some market
  garden activities close to the amphitheatre.
• Secondary production occurred in small to medium
  workshops , generally using slave labour
• The workshops at Pompeii did manufacture goods
  that were exported ..initially exchanged at the
  port of Puteoli, the port of Rome, from where
  they were taken to the markets of the capital.
  Traders in Rome and Puteoli would have
  distributed the products throughout the Empire.
  Ray Laurence Space and Society in Pompeii

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Fullers House of Stephanus
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EUMACHIA, patroness of the Fullers Guild
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Wool and Textile Industry

• The scale of textile production is disputed with
  some claiming it as a major activity, arguing
  that the number of fulleries and dye shops far
  exceeded demand.
• Of the fulleries found, 4 are large. The F ullery
  of Stephanus contained several rooms with a
  clothes press, basins for washing, foot basins
  for treading ( using animal or human urin since
  no soap to remove grease or dirt existed) and 3
  large basins for rinsing. There was also a large
  balcony overlooking the atrium from which
  finished clothes could be dried.
• Near the entrance, a skeleton was found with
  gold, silver and bronze coins to the value of
  1,089 sesterces, thought to represent the days
  takings.

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Bread production From grain to table
The traditional view is that the ancients
purchased their flour from the miller and made
their own bread at home. However there is little
evidence from the ovens located in
houses. Commercial bakeries are found throughout
both towns. The Bakery of Modestus was found with
81 loaves still in the ovens at the time of the
eruption
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BASALT MILLS. Large bakeries with several mills
were located some distance from the Forum,
generally where more land was available.Small
stones from the basalt were often incorporated in
the flour. Estelle Lazer found that the dental
remains showed evidence of wear from bread.
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Distribution of Bread
Closer to the Forum and located along main
thorough fares such as Via Dell Abbondanza were
shops which sold bread. Paintings such as the one
on the right were found decorating the walls of
such shops Some controversy exists over whether
the painting depicts the free distribution of
bread given to the poor as a type of welfare.
Evidence tells us that bread was formed into
round shapes and formed into 8 segments, although
small rolls and biscuits were also sold
20
Arts and Craftsdepicted in wall paintings
From frescoes , paintings and graffiti we can
establish a list of occupations found at
Pompeii Auctioneer, baker, barber, bath
attendant,, builder, carpenter, dyer, gem cutter,
innkeeper, miller, money lender, mason, musician,
painter, cook, prostitute, scribe, sign writer,
surgeon, teacher, weaver and wine seller
21
Metal Work, Bronze, Iron, Copper, Silver and Gold
More than a dozen workshops have been found to be
associated with metal work of some sort. Shop
signs and graffiti also support evidence for such
activity A marble relief has been found which
shows copper smiths at work A tinkers shop has
been found at Herculaneum with a forge for
heating metal with bellows
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Tertiary Industry

• The number of bars, taverns and brothels in the
  archaeological remains, suggests a buoyant
  service industry.
• Hotels with dining rooms and guest accommodation
  have been found at both sites
• Large numbers of people gained employment as
  staff at baths, masseurs, barbers, carriers, and
  muleteers
• In the narrow streets to the east of the Forum as
  many as nine buildings have been identified as
  brothels. To date none have been excavated at
  Herculaneum

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RETAIL
Carbonized remains of eggs, paintings and shop
signs give abundant evidence of the variety and
number of retail shops distributed throughout
Pompeii and Herculaneum
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GLOSSARY

• CAUPONA- Tavern or Inn, with or without rooms for
  rent.At the Inn of Asselina there were tables and
  chairs, hot wine was served. The kettle for
  heating wine was found with the lid still on. The
  names of the 3 women who worked there were
  written on the walls.( Maria, Smyrna, Aegle-
  slaves have only one name)
• THERMOPOLIA- Small hot food and drink bars which
  did not provide seating

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FOOD AND DRINK BARS
Public eating took place at Thermopolia ( snack
bars)and Tabernae, in which large dolia in a
marble bench held hot drinks and dishes. 200
found in Pompeii. One of the largest found in
Herculaneum opposite Palaestra had 2 entrances
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Asselina's Caupona
Valeria Hedone, Innkeeper Handsome soldier,
drink here for just 1 as, for 2 asses you can
drink better, and for 4 asses have some really
good Falernian wine.
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DEBATE

• Argument centres around whether the rooms at the
  back or upstairs served as brothels
• Prostitutes , although low in social status were
  free to wander the streets. Others had their
  services advertised.
• There is some debate about Asellinas caupona
  because of the mention of the three girls names.
  However there is no evidence to confirm that the
  establishment was anything more than an Inn

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BROTHEL PAINTINGLupinariums
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Commerce Evidence
Work by the Bradford Team in the Anglo Forum
Project identified 1000 coins found at Pompeii.
The large number of local copper and bronze coins
known as pseudo ebusus coins suggest the use of a
largely localised monetary economy. To date no
mint has been excavated A long list of food
prices was found scratched on the Wall of an
atrium
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WEIGHTS AND MEASURES COUNTERMensa
Ponderarialocated next to the Temple of Apollo
in the Forum
We also know from an inscription that Herculaneum
had an official set of weights and measures
31
Wax Tablets of Caecilius Jacundus
Receipt for sale of 1 mule at auction by
Caecilius Felix Receipt for 38,079 sesterces from
auction for Marcus Lucretius Lerus Receipt for
auction of slave of Lucius Iunius Aquila
32
Herculaneum

• Allowing for the problem that only 1/3 of
  Herculaneum has been excavated it appears that
  the resort nature of the town limited economic
  activity to retail and tertiary industry such as
  bakeries, food shops, taverns.
• There is some evidence of fishing, boats and
  nets, however it is seen to be small scale and
  supplying the needs of the local population

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Bakery at Herculaneum. 25 bronze baking pans
were found with mixing bowls. By the mills,
skeletons of donkeys that once turned the mills
were found
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MARKET DAY

• Food and items were sold , direct from workshops,
  general shops, inside and outside the Macellum,
  the meat and fish market.
• But not all vendors required permanent shops.
  Wall paintings from the Villa of Julia Felix
  depicts stalls in the Forum and graffiti
  advertizes market days held at Pompeii, Nuceria,
  Nola, Cumae and Puteoli at different times of the
  month

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The Debate Export/Import or Consumer city?
Jongman vs Moeller

• Pompeii was a consumer city, economically
  dependant on the agricultural products of the
  hinterland Weber
• No. of production facilities within the region is
  sufficient for Pompeii an export market
  Moeller
• Jongman believes that spinning and weaving were
  household crafts
• Small no. of workshops would service city not
  export market Jongman
• Presence of looms in houses indicates weaving was
  small scale Jongman
• Inscriptions record the use of wool in private
  residences
• Six dye houses found in Pompeii Moeller
• Moeller identified a number of workshops in the
  archaeological record with processes associated
  with wool and cloth cleaning. Ray Lawrence
• Involves 700 1000 workers Moeller
• Large flocks of sheep for wool
• Implication of commercial ornamental gardening
  shows the distinction between town country is
  blurred Jashemski