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Chapter 5: Reading and Evaluating Arguments

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Title: Chapter 5: Reading and Evaluating Arguments


1
Chapter 5 Reading and Evaluating Arguments
  • Academic Reading
  • By Kathleen T. McWhorter
  • (4th Edition)

Powerpoint by Gretchen Starks-Martin St. Cloud
State University, Minnesota
2
Learning Objectives
  • To recognize the elements of an argument
  • To recognize types of arguments
  • To evaluate arguments
  • To recognize errors in logical reasoning

3
An argument presents logical reasons and
evidence to support a viewpoint
4
Parts of an Argument
  • ISSUE - problem or controversy about which people
    disagree
  • CLAIM - the position on the issue
  • SUPPORT - reasons and evidence that the claim is
    reasonable and should be accepted
  • REFUTATION - opposing viewpoints

5
Types of Claims
  • CLAIM OF FACT - statement that can be proven or
    verified by observation or research
  • Within ten years, destruction
    of rain forests will cause
    hundreds of plant and animal species to
    become extinct.

6
Types of Claims
  • CLAIM OF VALUE - states that one thing or idea is
    better or more desirable than another.
  • Requiring community service in
    high school will produce more community-aware
    graduates.

7
Types of Claims
  • CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests what should or ought
    to be done to solve a problem.
  • To reduce school violence, more gun and metal
    detectors should be installed in public schools.

8
Types of Support
  • REASON - a general statement that supports a
    claim.
  • EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics,
    experiences, comparisons, and examples that show
    why the claim is valid.
  • EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that are targeted
    toward needs or values that readers are likely to
    care about.

9
Inductive and Deductive Arguments
  • INDUCTIVE - reaches a general conclusion from
    observed specifics.
  • By observing the performance of a large number
    of athletes, you could conclude that athletes
    possess physical stamina.

10
Inductive and Deductive Arguments
  • DEDUCTIVE - begins with a major premise and moves
    toward a more specific statement or minor
    premise.
  • Athletes possess physical stamina. Because
    Anthony is an athlete, he must possess physical
    stamina.

11
Strategies for Reading an Argument
  • What does the title suggest? Preview!
  • Who is the author, and what are his or her
    qualifications?
  • What is the date of publication?
  • What do I already know about the issue?

Think Before You Read
12
Strategies for Reading an Argument
  • Read once for an initial impression.
  • Read the argument several more times.
  • Annotate as you read.
  • Highlight key terms.
  • Diagram or map to analyze structure.

Read Actively
13
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
  • Evaluate Types of Evidence - Is it sufficient to
    support the claim?
  • Personal Experience - may be biased, so do not
    accept it
  • Examples - should not be used by themselves

14
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
  • Statistics - can be misused, manipulated or
    misinterpreted.
  • Comparisons and Analogies - reliability depends
    on how closely they correspond to the situation.
  • Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence - is there
    enough of the right kind to support the claim?

15
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
  • Definition of Terms - should be carefully defined
    and used consistently
  • Cause-Effect Relationships - evidence that the
    relationship exists should be present
  • Implied or Stated Value System - are they
    consistent with your personal value system?

16
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
  • Recognizing and Refuting Opposing Viewpoints
  • Question the accuracy, relevancy or sufficiency
    of the opponents evidence.
  • Does the author address opposing viewpoints
    clearly and fairly?
  • Does the author refute the opposing viewpoint
    with logic and relevant evidence?

17
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
  • Unfair Emotional Appeals
  • Emotionally Charged or Biased Language
  • False Authority
  • athletes endorsing underwear
  • movie stars selling shampoo
  • Association
  • a car being named a Cougar to remind you of a
    sleek animal
  • a cigarette advertisement featuring a scenic
    waterfall

18
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
  • Unfair Emotional Appeals
  • Appeal to Common Folk
  • an ad showing a product being used in an average
    household
  • a politician suggesting he is like everyone else
  • Ad Hominem - attack on the person rather than
    his/her viewpoint
  • Join the Crowd Appeal or Bandwagon

19
What emotional appeal is being used?
  • Come early so you wont have to stand in line
    because everyone knows you can make a deal with
    Dave and save.
  • As a test pilot, Susan Gibbs knows performance.
    Thats why I drive a Mustang, she says.
  • Olsons pizzas are lower in fat and calories.
    Other pizza makers dont care about your health.

20
Emotional appeals continued
  • We can work magic with your children, says
    Eileen of Eileens Day Care. Call upon us, and
    your children will be happy you did.
  • Liberty Bell Airlines flies anywhere in this
    great land, from sea to shining sea.
  • As a young man, Candidate Alan Wilson learned
    what it means to work hard by spending long hours
    lifting boxes and sweeping floors working in a
    department store.

21
Errors in Logical Reasoningcommonly called
logical fallaciesinvalidate the argument or
render argument flawed
  • Circular Reasoning/Begging the Question
  • Female police officers should not be sent to
    crime scenes because apprehending criminals is a
    mans job.
  • Hasty Generalization - conclusion derived from
    insufficient evidence
  • Because one apple is sour,
    all of them in the bowl must
    be sour.

22
Errors in Logical Reasoning
  • Non Sequitur (It Does Not Follow)
  • Because my doctor is young, Im
    sure shell be a good doctor.
  • False Cause
  • Because I opened the umbrella when I tripped on
    the sidewalk, the umbrella must have caused me to
    trip.
  • Either-Or Fallacy
  • Because of the violence, TV must be either
    allowed or banned.

23
For Each Argument
  • Identify the claim.
  • Outline the reasons to support the claim.
  • What types of evidence are used?
  • Evaluate the adequacy and sufficiency of the
    evidence.
  • What emotional appeals are used?
  • Does the author recognize or refute counter
    arguments?

24
Comparing the Arguments
  • Compare the types of evidence used.
  • Which argument did you find more convincing?
    Why?
  • What further information would be useful in
    assessing the issue?

25
Read the articles on education and complete the
activities following each selection.
  • School Boards Doing Little to Close Gap Between
    Whites, Minorities
  • School Vouchers The Wrong Choice for Public
    Education
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