SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY:

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SELF-DETERMINATIONTHEORY FROM THE INSIDE
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Self-determination theoryis an organismic
theory Not a social-cognitive theory
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Social-cognitive theories are incentive-based Peo
ple will engage in behaviours to theextent that
they feel capable of achievingdesirable
outcomes People are active organisms to the
extentthat they seek to achieve desirable
outcomes

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Social-cognitive theories However, they are
still driven by outcomeexpectancies Expectancies
are shaped by the social environment
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Organismic theories
The organism is an active system with aninherent
propensity for growth and theresolution of
inconsistencies When functioning optimally it
displaysan orderly regulation and
integrationamong its parts
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Organismic theories
Organismic development entails bothincreasing
diversification and integration When functioning
optimally, behaviours areengaged in that promote
diversification andintegration The organism has
needs that when satisfiedpromote diversification
and integration
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The organism becomesincreasingly morecomplex
and diversified And becomes increasinglyindividu
alised But maintains its integrity
Only does this when itsneeds are satisfied
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Organismic principles and psychological
growth The synthetic principle
(Freud) Individuation (Jung) Actualising
tendency (Maslow) Cognitive organisation
(Piaget)
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Organismic principles in Piagetsdevelopmental
theory
Cognitive development involves a progressive
differentiation of cognitive elements and the
assimilation and accommodation of experiences
into organised, coherent structures
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Piagets developmental theory
Cognitive development is facilitated by
environments that provide situations that
require adaptation (through assimilation and
accommodation)
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Social-cognitive theories assume that
Behaviour is influenced by beliefs about reward
contingencies (expectancies) Expectancies are
shaped by the social environment There is no
inherent integrative or growth tendency
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Implications for intervention
Social-cognitive approach Shaping, training,
modifying, controlling Organismic
approach Facilitating, supporting, nurturing
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Implications for intervention Organismic
approach
In clinical settings, clients usually present
with a need to resolve inconsistencies The
therapists job is to facilitate the
naturalintegrative tendency to help the client
resolvethese inconsistencies
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Self-determination theory posits an
innateorganisational tendency toward
growth,integration of the self, and the
resolutionof psychological inconsistency Individ
uals seek to extend themselves andto integrate
what they experience The principle of organismic
integration
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The integrative tendency requires
thesatisfaction of certain psychological needs
To feel competent To feel self-determining
(autonomous) To feel related
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The nature of needs in SDT
SDT is not a drive theory Drive theories posit
that the set point ofthe organism is equilibrium
or satiation Needs are understood as
deficiencies In SDT the set point is
growth-oriented
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SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
Comprises three sub-theories
Cognitive evaluation theory How events influence
intrinsic motivation
Organismic integration theory The development of
self-determination
Causality orientations theory Individual
differences
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Competence
The need to feel that one can reliablyproduce
desired outcomes and/oravoid negative outcomes
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Competence
Competence requires 1. An understanding of the
relationshipbetween a behaviour and its
consequences Outcome expectations Strategy
beliefs, (Skinner, 1995)
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Competence
Competence requires 2. A need to feel capable
of successfullyengaging in the
behaviour Efficacy expectations Capacity
beliefs (Skinner, 1995).
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CET
Events influence a persons intrinsicmotivation
to the extent that they affectperceptions of
competence within thecontext of some
self-determination
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Markland Hardy (1997)
Interest- Enjoyment
Self-Determination
Pressure- Tension
Perceived Competence
Effort- Importance
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Self-determination, perceived competence and
interest-enjoymentMarkland (1999)
High Self-Determination
Low Self-Determination
High
Interest - enjoyment
Low
Low
High
Perceived Competence
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Autonomy
Autonomy relates to the feeling that one
isacting in accord with ones sense of
self When acting autonomously, individuals
feelthat they are causal agents with respect
totheir actions A sense of choosing rather than
feelingcompelled or controlled
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Freedom is the right to choose the right to
create for oneself the alternatives of choice.
Without the possibility of choice, and the
exercise of choice, a man is not a man but a
member, an instrument, a thing.
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Internally versus externally imposed control
In SDT, the central issue in autonomy is the
experience of freedom from pressure,regardless
of who is imposing the pressure
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Internally versus externally imposed control
"One can be as tyrannical toward oneself as
others can be. The issue is not so much whether
the source of control is oneself or another, but
whether or not one is being controlled" Deci
Ryan (1985)
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Internally versus externally imposed control
We can pressurise ourselves into acting I
must, I have to I ought to Demands
imposed on oneself
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Self-control procedures
Self-monitoring Self-reinforcement Self-punishme
nt Stimulus controlGoal-setting
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Atkins et al. (1984)Self-control of exercise
Behaviour modification programme aimed
atdeveloping self-control Self-reinforcement
contingent on daily walking A number of
participants dropped out becausethey did not
like to be regimented
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Internally informational versusinternally
controlling regulation
To regulate one's own behaviour in a
controllingfashion leads to tension and pressure
to perform.To regulate one's behaviour in an
informationalfashion allows freedom from
pressure and theexperience of choice
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The Jekyll Hyde nature of goals (Burton, 1992)
Goals may be a positive motivational
force,directing attention to the task and
mobilizingeffort.
On the other hand, they may be a source ofstress
because they represent the standardsby which
individuals define failure as well assuccess.
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Reasons for Exercising
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Self-determination mediates the effects
ofexercise motives on intrinsic
motivation Markland (1999)
Enjoyment
Recreation
Affiliation
Self- Determination
IntrinsicMotivation
HealthPressures
Ill-HealthAvoidance
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Self-determination mediates the effects
ofexercise motives on intrinsic
motivation Markland (1999)
Enjoyment
Recreation
Affiliation
Self- Determination
IntrinsicMotivation
Ill-HealthAvoidance
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Self-determination mediates the effects
ofexercise motives on intrinsic
motivation Markland (1999)
.84
Self- Determination
Chi Sq 28 31.11, p .31 rmsea .02srmr
.06 NNFI .99
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Internally versus externally imposed control
The boundary between internal andexternal is not
the skin Behavioural regulation that
emanatesfrom within the individual is
notnecessarily motivationally adaptive
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Internally versus externally imposed control
Autonomy requires that engagementin an activity
is freely chosen inaccordance with ones other
goalsand values
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Autonomy is not independence
Autonomy relates to the feeling that one
isacting in accord with ones sense of selfand
values Ones sense of self and values are
largelydetermined by social influences To the
extent that one has assimilatedthe values of
significant others one canstill be autonomous
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Relatedness
The need to feel close to others andemotionally
secure in ones relationships The sense that
significant others careabout ones well-being
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Relatedness
During infancy, more securelyattached children
demonstratemore exploratory behavioursthan less
well attached children (e.g. Bowlby, 1976)
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Relatedness
Relatedness provides a securebase that makes the
expressionof the innate growth tendencymore
likely and more robust (Deci Ryan, 2000)
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The facilitating environment
The social environment can facilitate orthwart
the integrative tendency to theextent that the
psychological needs arenurtured or impeded
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The facilitating environment
When the social environment providesfor the
nurturance of psychological needs,the person
will move towards integrationand a unified sense
of self, and developthe personal resources for
engaging inadaptive self-regulation of
behaviour (Deci Ryan, 2000)
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The facilitating environment
When the social environment is perceivedas
controlling, over-challenging andrejecting of
ones needs the integrativetendency will be
thwarted, often leadingto defensive behaviours
and behaviouraland psychological
withdrawal (Deci Ryan, 2000)
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Internalisation of behavioural regulation
The natural process by which individualstransform
socially-sanctioned activitiesinto personally
endorsed values andself-regulations Deci
Ryan (2000)
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Internalisation of behavioural regulation
Individuals assimilate and reconstituteexternal
regulations so that they canbe self-determined
when enacting them Deci Ryan (2000)
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Internalisation of behavioural regulation
Not merely conforming to social norms When fully
internalised, a regulation is notonly taken in
but is transformed andsynthesised, so that it is
congruent withthe persons other goals, values
andsense of self
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The self-determination continuum
Degrees of self-determination in behavioural
regulation
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Amotivation
Amotivation is a state of lacking anyintention
to engage in a behaviourand is a completely
non-self-determinedform of regulation.
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Amotivation
Results from not valuing an activity,not feeling
competent to engage init and/or not feeling that
it willproduce desired outcomes
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External regulation
Behaviour is undertaken in order to satisfysome
external demand Typically, pressures imposed by
significantothers, to attain tangible rewards,
or toavoid punishment
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External regulation
When regulated in this way, people maybe
motivated to comply with the externalpressure to
act but will do so unwillingly,even resentfully,
and are unlikely tocontinue with the activity if
the externalpressures are relaxed
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External regulation
Alternatively, other-imposed pressure toact may
be perceived as a threat to autonomy Individuals
may react to this with defianceand by doing just
the opposite
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Introjected regulation
External regulation is taken in but
notaccepted as ones own Swallowed whole but
not digested (Perls, 1973) As if the regulator
and the regulatee wereseparate persons (Ryan et
al. 1995)
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Introjected regulation
Controls are applied through self-imposedpressure
s in order to avoid guilt or tomaintain
self-esteem Internally controlling regulation
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Introjected regulation
Accompanied by a negative emotional
tone,tension, and an inner conflict between
theself-imposed demands to engage in
thebehaviour and the failure to value it Thus
behaviours regulated by introjectionare unlikely
to remain stable
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Identified regulation
A conscious acceptance of the behaviouras being
important in order to achievepersonally valued
outcomes The valued outcome provides a
strongincentive that can override difficulties
inmaintaining the behaviour
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Integrated regulation
The assimilation of identified regulationso that
engaging in the behaviour is fullycongruent with
ones sense of self When integrated one
experiences a senseof coherence between what one
does andwho one is
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Integrated regulation
Similar to intrinsic regulation in that
thebehaviour is engaged in willingly, with
nosense of coercion, and is therefore
fullyself-determined However, the behaviour is
still engagedin for separable outcomes rather
than forthe satisfaction inherent in engaging
inthe activity itself
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The self-determination continuum
Degrees of self-determination in behavioural
regulation
Unmotivated,lackingintention
Drivenby externalpressures
Driven byinternalpressures
Valuetheoutcome
Coherentsense ofself
Interestandenjoyment
Non-Self Determined
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Organismic integration
Organism has basicneeds that must be met
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Facilitating integration
Integration is facilitated by ambientsupports
for the needs to feelcompetent, autonomous and
related
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Facilitating integration
Three dimensions of a motivationallysupportive
environment that correspondto the three
psychological needs
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A motivationally-supportive environment
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Autonomy support
Encourage individuals to Determine what is
important for them Initiate actions themselves
and for their own reasons Recognize that
they can exercise choice and self-direction
regarding their behaviour
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Autonomy support
Explore available options Minimise pressure to
engage in the behaviour
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Structure
Encourage individuals to Develop clear and
realistic expectations about what behaviour
change could do for them Formulate
realistically achievable goals
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Structure
Encourage individuals to Believe that they are
capable of engaging in the appropriate
behaviours Provide positive informational
feedback regarding progress
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Involvement
Significant others relevant to a
behaviourunderstand the persons position and
thedifficulties they are facing, and are
genuinelyinterested in them and their well-being
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Involvement
Show genuine interest and warmth Express empathy
and non-judgemental support Avoid confrontation
or criticism
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Motivational Interviewing and SDT
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Motivational Interviewing
Developed in the context of the treatmentof
alcohol problems
Dissatisfaction with both trait approachesand
traditional client-centred approaches
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Trait approaches
Those who do not recover areconstitutionally
incapable of beinghonest with themselves Alco
holics Anonymous (1955)
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Trait approaches
Treatment failure attributed to
clientcharacteristics
72 of treatment centres blamed the clientsfor
treatment failures, only 11 attributedsome
responsibility to the treatment
programmes (Moore, 1971)
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Trait approaches
Clients who fail to respond to treatmentoften
said to be in denial The layers of denial in
alcoholism run deep and present an almost
impenetrable wall DiCicco et al.
(1978) The only way round denial is to confront
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The meaning of denial Denial is when the client
disagrees with thetherapist. A client not in
denial is one whodoes not challenge the
therapists authorityand plays by the
rules Koumans (1969)
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Self-fulfilling prophecy
The trait model discourages intervention Percepti
ons that the client is unmotivatedmay invoke
negative behaviours in thetherapist, such as
suspicion, hostilityand a lack of empathy
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Leake King (1977)
Counsellors were informed prior totreatment that
some clients werelikely to show remarkable
recoverybased on personality test profiles
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Leake King (1977)
They showed greater compliance totreatment, more
sober days and fewerslips at one-year follow-up,
and weremore likely to have held down a job
thancomparable controls
In fact, they were randomly selected
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The problem of ambivalence
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The problem of ambivalence
There are both benefits and costs associatedwith
changing behaviour
Arguing for change can produce perfectlyvalid
counter-arguments (from the clientspoint of
view)
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Yes, I did start going to anexercise class but I
felt soembarrassed among allthose fit slim
youngsters. I only went once then gave up.
Have you thought abouttaking up exercise tohelp
you control yourweight?
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Yes, but people wouldlook at the size of meand
think Im a right oldfool.
Well, you dont have togo to classes to
exercise,you could just go for ajog around the
park.
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I havent got a video player.
Well, you could alwaysexercise at home. Whynot
buy one of thoseexercise videos?
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Yes, but Im so unfit, Imafraid I might do
myselfmore harm than good.
Ah. OK, well you couldjust have a bit of
aworkout to music on theradio or something.
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Yes I know, but what withthe kids and the job
and thehousework and everything,I really
havent got the time.
Well you have to startoff with just very
lightexercise and then buildit up. A brisk
twentyminute walk every daywould help you
startto get fit.
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Yes, but
Well, what about
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For crying out loud, I give up
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Negative effects of persuasion
Most people have either not consideredchanging
their behaviour or are ambivalentto change
Advice or persuasion to change could be perceived
as a threat to autonomy
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Client-centred counselling
Carl Rogers Allows the client to determine the
contentand direction of counselling
Avoids advice and active intervention
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Client-centred counselling
Provides non-contingent empathy(unconditional
positive regard)
Explores the clients conflicts asthey currently
exist Aims to help the client accept theway
they are
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Motivational interviewingThe philosophy
Motivational Interviewing is a
client-centred,directive method for enhancing
intrinsicmotivation to change by exploring
andresolving ambivalence Miller
Rollnick (2002)
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Two major facets
Style How the counsellor interacts with the
client
Techniques The strategies adopted by
the counsellor
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Motivational Interviewing emphasises
Choice and personal responsibility
The clients own concerns and views onthe problem
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Motivational Interviewing emphasises
That denial and resistance to change
areinterpersonal issues, not just a problemof
the client
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Motivational Interviewing
Negotiates in developing goals and strategiesto
achieve them
Directs the client to consider their
motivationfor change
Offers advice and suggestions where appropriate
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Empathy is used selectively to reinforcemovement
towards change
Actively seeks to create a discrepancybetween
current and ideal behaviour in order to motivate
change
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FOUR GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1 Express empathy
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Express empathy
This does not mean agreeing with theclient,
simply trying to see what theirperspective on
the problem is
Ambivalence is considered normal andto be
expected
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2 Develop discrepancy
The aim is not to have clients accept theway
they are
Bringing home to the client the
discrepancybetween where they are and where
theywant/need to be
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Develop discrepancy
Clients seeking help with behaviour changewill
probably already perceive a discrepancy.Motivatio
nal interviewing seeks to make useof this
discrepancy
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Motivational interviewing is gentlypersuasive
rather than confrontational
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Roll with resistance
Clients statements are reframed to helpcreate a
new perspective
Clients are encouraged to find (or select)their
own solutions to the problem
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A client may perceive that he or she has
aproblem and that there are solutions to
theproblem but if they do not believe that
theycan implement the solutions, they will not
try
Ready, willing and able
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How does it work?
We are only beginning to understand thelinks
between (motivational interviewings)processes
and outcomes. Miller (1996)
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How does it work?
I do puzzle about what finally sets inmotion
the process of altering that whichhas been so
persistent Foremost in my mind is the
fundamentalquestion of why this approach works
at all Miller (1996)
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Markland, Ryan, Tobin Rollnick, 2005
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Organismic integration
change arises from within, from recognition
of the incompatibility of the target behavior
and things that are more dear, more central,
more valued, and more important to the
person Miller (1994)
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Organismic integration
a process of aligning clients more
peripheral behaviors, attitudes and beliefs
toward consistency with and subservience to
those values that are most central, most dear,
most core to identity Miller (1994)
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Organismic integration
a process of integration, of movement
toward personal integrity Miller (1994)
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Intrinsic motivation in MI
Miller Rollnick (2002) conceptualiseintrinsic
motivation as any motivationthat arises from
within the person, withextrinsic motivation
being where themotivation to change is imposed
by others
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Intrinsic motivation in SDT
In the behaviour change contexts
typicallyencountered in counselling, it is
oftenunrealistic to expect clients to
becomeintrinsically motivated to engage in a
newbehaviour
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Intrinsic motivation in SDT
the lions share of social developmentconcerns
the assimilation of culturallytransmitted
behavioral regulations andvaluations that are
neither spontaneousnor inherently interesting
Ryan (1995)
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Intrinsic motivation in SDT
In SDT the critical distinction is
betweencontrolling regulation of
behaviour,where the individual is pressuredto
act either by externally imposedforces or
internally controlling,introjected forces, and
autonomousregulations
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Developing discrepancy a double-edged sword
Developing discrepancy could lead theindividual
into the partially internalisedand
self-controlling regulatory staterepresented by
introjection, wherebythey are pressurising
themselves to change
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Developing discrepancy a double-edged sword
Highlights the risks of adopting a
mechanicalapproach to the implementation of
MIsprinciples and strategies