The Flight Environment

1
Lecture 9

• The Flight Environment
• Airports
• Chapter 4 (B,C), Jeppesen Sanderson
• Chapters 15, Kroes and Rardon

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Airport

• Airport Visual Aids
• Runway markings
• Taxiway markings
• Airport Signs
• Airport Lighting
• Airport Beacon
• Visual glideslope indicators
• Runway edge lights
• Taxiway lighting
• Obstruction lighting
• Aeronautical Charts

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Airport Visual Aids

• Runway markings
• Runways with precision approaches and with
• non-precision approaches
• Displaced threshold
• Blast pad / stopway
• NOTAM

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Runway Markings (1)

• Runway markings vary between runways used only
  for VFR and those that can be used both for VFR
  and IFR.
• A runway used for VFR alone usually is marked
  with only the runway number and the dashed white
  centerline.
• A runway that can be used for IFR has markings
  that allows pilots to navigate to the runway
  using only the flight instruments
• In this lecture we focus on runways that can be
  used both for IFR and VFR.

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Runway Markings (2) Precision Nonprecision
Approaches

• Runways for IFR can have two types of approach
  guidance - those using electronic glide slope to
  guide landing are said to use precision
  approaches.
• IFR runways that do not have electronic
  glideslope are said to use nonprecision
  approaches. IFR runways with nonprecision
  approaches also have somewhat different runway
  markings from those for precision approaches.

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Runway Markings (3) Precision Nonprecision
Approaches

• A runway using nonprecision instrument approach
  has a threshold and aiming point markings.
• In addition to the threshold and aiming point
  markings, precision approach runways also include
  touchdown zone markings. (Fig 4-17)

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Visual, Precision Nonprecision runways (4-17)
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Runway Markings (4) Displaced Threshold

• Sometimes a runway might be obstructed by
  buildings or other objects near the end.
• In such case the initial part cannot be used for
  landing and the threshold is displaced forward
  and a solid white line is added as the beginning
  of the threshold. Landing has to be done
  starting or beyond the threshold.
• The initial part is marked with white arrows. It
  cannot be used for landing but can be used for
  taxiing, takeoff, and as landing rollout. (Fig
  4-18)

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Displaced Threshold (4-18)
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Runway Markings (4) Blast Pad / stopway

• A blast pad / stopway looks similar to the
  initial part preceding a displaced threshold,
  except that the markings are yellow inverted-Vs
  instead of white arrows.
• However it cannot be used for takeoff or even for
  taxiing.
• The area can only be used for decelerating after
  an aborted takeoff or an abnormal landing from
  the other side. In this area jet blast
  dissipation will not affect others. (Fig 4-19)

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Blast Pad / stopway (4-19)
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NOTAM

• If a runway has to be closed unexpectedly and
  there is not enough time to publish the
  information on standard operational publications,
  a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) may be issued to
  pilots about the closure.
• Also, NOTAMs can include changes in the status of
  navigational aids or instrument approach
  facilities, radar service availability, or other
  information ensential for landing operations.

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Airport Visual Aids

• Taxiway markings
• Taxiway marks
• Ramp area hand signals

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Taxiway Markings

• The links between the runway and the parking
  areas for airplanes are the taxiways.
• A taxiway can easily be identified with its
  continuous yellow centerline.
• In some airports, edge marking are added to
  separate the taxiway from pavements that are not
  for airplane driving.
• When a taxiway intersects a runway a hold line is
  drawn to prevent airplanes from wrongly entering
  the runway. (4-21)

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Taxiway marking and Hold Line (4-21)
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Ramp Area

• The area where airplanes park are called the
  apron or ramp area.
• Airport terminals and maintenance facilities are
  often located near the ramp area.
• Standard hand signals are used by ramp personnel
  for directing pilots during airplane ground
  movements and ground operations (called Fix Base
  Operations or FBOs). (Fig 4-23)

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Standard Hand Signals (4-23)
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Airport Visual Aids

• Taxiway markings
• Taxiway marks
• Ramp area hand signals

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Airport Signs

• The International Civil Aviation Organization
  (ICAO) is a United Nations Agency that develop
  standard airport signs.
• The standard specification of these signs include
  their size, height, where the signs should be
  put, and their illumination.
• There are six basic types of airport signs. (Fig
  4-24)
• Some example of sign use is in Fig 4-25.

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Airport Signs (4-24)
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Example of airport sign usage (4-25)
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Airport Lighting

• Airport Beacon
• Visual Glideslope Indicators
• Runway Edge Lights
• In-Runway Light
• Taxiway Lighting
• Obstruction Lighting

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Airport Beacon

• Lights which might have different colors and
  might change with time that are specifically used
  to guide pilots flying to airports in the dark
  are called airport beacons. (Fig 4-27)
• These beacons are most noticeable from one to ten
  degrees above the horizon. (Remember that
  standard landing is at 3)

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Airport Beacon (4-27)
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Visual Glideslope Indicators (1)

• Visual glideslope indicators are light systems to
  let you know your position in relation to the
  desired glide path in landing to the runway.
• They are located on the side of the runway and
  can be used both during the day and at night.
• One typical type is the visual approach slope
  indicator (VASI).

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Visual Glideslope Indicators (2)

• VASI may have either 2 or 3 bars (rows) of
  lights.
• A 2-bar system has one near and one far bar.
  Each bar can contain 2, 4 or 12 light units.
• If both bars show white lights, you are too high
  for your landing.
• If both bars show red, you are too low.
• If the far bar is red and the near bar is white
  you are just right. (Fig 4-28)

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2-Bar VASI (4-28)
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Visual Glideslope Indicators (4) - Tri-color VASI

• Tri-color VASI uses a single light unit that
  projects a three-color visual path.
• If while descending you see an amber light you
  are too high.
• If you see a green light you are right on the
  glide path.
• If you see red you are too low for correct
  landing. (Fig 4-29)

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Tri-color VASI (4-29)
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Visual Glideslope Indicators (5) - PAPI

• Some airport uses the precision approach path
  indicator (PAPI) which uses 2 or 4 lights in a
  row (instead of the two lights used in a VASI)
  and is put on the left side of the runway.
• In a 4-light system if all lights are white you
  are too high.
• If there are 3 white light and one red you are
  slightly high.
• If there are 2 white lights and 2 red ones you
  are just right. (and so on) (Fig 4-30)

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The PAPI (4-30)
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Runway Edge Lights (1)

• Runway edge lights consists a row of lights on
  each side of the runway, plus lights identifying
  the runway threshold.
• At some airports the pilot can adjust the
  intensity of these runway lights from the cockpit
  using the radio transmitter.
• Some runway edge lights incorporates yellow
  runway remaining lights on the last half of the
  runway (or the last 2000 feet of the runway,
  whichever is less).

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Runway Edge Lights (2)

• In some runways the threshold lights might be
  replaced with a row of green lights across the
  beginning of the runway.
• These green lights are actually two-ways. When
  viewed from the other side of the runway (for
  planes taking off or landing from the opposite
  direction) they are red in color, indicating the
  end of the runway from that direction.
• Sometimes high intensity strobe lights are placed
  on each side of the runway at the threshold and
  can be used together with the green threshold
  lights.

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In-Runway Lighting (1)

• Some precision approach runways have
  flush-mounted (level with the ground) lightings
  for the runway centerline, the touchdown zone,
  and taxiway turnoff area.
• The runway centerline lighting system (RCLS) is
  white until the last 3000 feet. From the 3000 to
  1000-foot point, the lights are alternating
  between red and white. In the last 1000 feet the
  lights are all red. The pilot thus knows about
  how much runway is left for used.

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In-Runway Lighting (2)

• Touchdown zone lighting (TDZL) consists of two
  rows of transverse light bars on either side of
  the runway centerline starting at 100 feet from
  the threshold and extends to 3000 feet (or
  extends over half the length of the runway,
  whichever is less).

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Taxiway Lighting

• Taxiways are lined with blue lights on both sides
  to guide the pilot on the taxiway from the runway
  to the ramp area.
• At some airports taxiways are also installed with
  green centerline lights in addition to the blue
  lights on the edges.

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Obstruction Lighting

• Obstruction lighting is used both on and off the
  airport, during day and night.
• They are used to warn pilots of large structures
  such as towers, buildings, and sometimes even
  powerlines.
• Bright red and high intensity white lights are
  typically used, and sometimes flashing lights are
  employed.
• Fig 4-23 displays different runway, taxiway, and
  obstruction lightings.

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Summary of typical large airport lightings (4-32)
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Aeronautical Charts

• Latitude and Longitude
• Projections

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Latitude and Longitude (1)

• A pilot has to know the earth in detail while
  planning the flight or during flying to get to
  the destination.
• He/she depends on aeronautical charts (detailed
  maps) for these purposes.
• Between the north pole and the south pole, the
  earth is divided into horizontal parallel lines
  called latitudes.
• The largest circle is the equator which is
  mid-way between the two poles and is labeled as
  0latitude.

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Latitude and Longitude (2)

• The parallel circular lines north from the
  equator are numbered from 0to 90, with 90north
  latitude being at the north pole.
• Similarly, the parallel latitude lines south of
  the equator are also numbered from 0to 90, with
  90south latitude being at the south pole.

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Latitude and Longitude (3)

• Vertical imaginary lines joining the north and
  the south pole are called longitudes.
• The longitude that passes Greenwich, England is
  labeled 0longitude (called the Prime Meridian).
• The hemisphere east of Greenwich is divided into
  180of longitude, and the hemisphere west of
  Greenwich is similarly divided into 180.

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Aeronautical Chart

• The lines of latitude and longitude are printed
  on an aeronautical chart.
• Each degree in latitude and longitude is
  sub-divided into 60 parts called minutes.
• Thus the earth is divided into 360x60 or 21,600
  parts both on the east-west direction and on the
  north-south direction on an aeronautical chart.
  (Fig 4-34)

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Latitude and Longitude on Aeronautical Chart
(4-34)
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Projections (1)

• When printing the aeronautical chart the
  3-dimensional earth has to be projected into a
  2-dimensional map.
• In our everyday wall map, both the latitudes and
  longitudes are projected as parallel straight
  lines onto the map.
• However in such projection the distances are
  greatly distorted as a very short distance near
  the poles that crosses 30 longitudes will appear
  much longer on the map.

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Wall map projection (4-35)
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Projections (2)

• To minimize the distortion problem aeronautical
  charts uses a different way of projection called
  Lambert Conformal Conic projection. (Fig 4-36)
• Aeronautical charts for VFR often show more
  details of the earth than those used for IFR.

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Conic projection for aeronautic charts (4-36)