Understanding the Past

1
Understanding the Past

• Everything so far how we deal with information
  at the moment. Time dimension in information
  processing looking back, looking ahead.
• Retrieval memory for the past.
• Reconstructive memory misremembering,
  selectively remembering, even creatively
  remembering the past.

2
Understanding the Past

• What guides reconstructions of past? Two
  important factors (Ross, 1989)
• Persons present standing on attribute.
• Implicit theories of stability and change
• Implicit theories intuitive ideas about what
  remains stable, what changes

3
Understanding the Past

• Example the self. Assume unified, stable over
  time.
• Chandler implicit theories of self stability
• Subjects adolescents
• Describe self 5 years ago
• Describe self today
• Gee, completely different. Are you really the
  same person? Yes. Why?
• Essence deep inside, unchanging
• Ross compare theories of stability, change,
  their effects on reconstructing the past

4
Understanding the Past

• Implicit theory of stability
• Self and dating partners current impressions
  and memories (McFarland Ross, 1987)
• Pretest assess implicit theories of traits
  which are stable over time.
• honest/dishonest, tidy/messy, reliable/unreliable,
  open-minded/closed-minded, intelligent/stupid
• Actual study. Participants dating someone for
  several months
• Session 1 rated impressions of selves,
  partners, and relationship on trait dimensions

5
Understanding the Past

• Session 2 2 months later rated impressions of
  selves, partners, and change in selves and
  partners on trait dimensions
• Results recall of Session 1 ratings as function
  of actual change. (Note low numbers are
  positive, high numbers negative).
• Impressions of Self/Other Change
• Index Negative No Change Positive
• Self 3.23 2.86 2.42
• Other 3.37 2.66 2.06

6
Understanding the Past

• Implicit theory of change If I take a study
  skills course, my study skills should improve.
• Conway Ross, 1984 -- Students offered study
  skills program during course. Note these
  programs typically have little benefit.
• Two conditions
• Study skills program group
• Waiting list group
• Ss evaluated study skills at 1st meeting. 3
  weekly sessions. Then, 4th week, recalled initial
  evaluations, rated improvement.

7
Understanding the Past

• Skills Evaluation
• Group Initial Recall
• Skills Prgrm 0.11 - 0.19 plt.01
• Wait List 0.01 0.10 ns
• Subjective improvement study skills group
  reported greater skills improvement
• Performance no significant improvement in
  grades
• McFarland, Ross, Giltrow (1992) different
  theories for different traits, different results

8
Understanding the Past

• So -- misremembering, selective remembering,
  reconstructive remembering. Biased memory.
  Memory as an active process.
• Sometimes -- memory not biased, but still active
  process. We know what happened, want to know how
  something else might have occurred.

9
Understanding the Past

• Counterfactual thinking imagining alternatives
  to reality. Constructing an alternative reality,
  one that didnt happen. counter to fact
  counterfactual.
• If I hadnt spent so much time reading the
  paper, I wouldnt have been late for the movie.
• If Id taken a different route, I wouldnt be
  stuck in traffic.
• If Id studied more instead of partying.

10
Understanding the Past

• When do we engage in counterfactual thought? What
  triggers it?
• Events that deviate from goals and expectations.
  Often means unwanted outcome. Counterfactual
  how could it have been different?

11
Understanding the Past

• Mr. Crane and Mr. Tees were scheduled to leave
  the airport on different flights, at the same
  time. They traveled from town in the same
  limousine, were caught in a traffic jam, and
  arrived at the airport 30 minutes after the
  scheduled departure time of their flights.
• Mr. Crane is told that his flight left on time.
• Mr. Tees is told that his flight was delayed, and
  just left five
• minutes ago.
• Who is more upset? Mr. Crane or Mr. Tees?
• Why?

12
Understanding the Past

• How do we generate alternatives?
• Mental models of what transpired. Includes
  causal relations. Compare what happened to
  mental model of how different outcome might have
  come about. How do we create alternative
  reality (counterfactual)?
• Changeability. Mutability. Some elements are
  easier to change (more mutable) than others.
  Generating counterfactual focuses on changeable
  elements.

13
Understanding the Past

• What determines changeability?
• Closeness
• Mr. Crane and Mr. Tees easier to alter things
  for 5-min than 30-min change
• Exception vs. routine
• If Id taken different route Easier to change
  exception than normal pattern.
• Controllability
• Some elements of mental model are more
  controllable (easier to change) than others.
• Bereaved persons someone killed by drunk driver
  -- generate counterfactuals no one removed
  drunk driver from scene, but altered loved ones
  behavior (Davis et al., 1995).

14
Understanding the Past

• Why spend time thinking about something that
  didnt happen? What functions served?
• Comparisons imagining alternatives social
  comparison process.
• Can imagine better or worse outcomes.
• Upward counterfactuals alternatives that
  improve on reality. If only I had Benefit
  learning. Preparation that can lead to better
  outcomes in future.
• Downward counterfactuals alternatives that are
  worse than reality. At least I didnt
  Benefit feel better, can help in coping

15
Understanding the Past

• Medvec, Madney, Gilovich (1995)
• In Olympic events, who is happier person
  finishing second (silver medalist) or person
  finishing third (bronze medalist)?
• Emotional reactions of both upward and downward
  counterfactuals.