Psychology Dept' Colloquium

1
Psychology Dept. Colloquium

• Training and Research with Older Individuals at
  the Alliance Senior Day Program
• Dr. Linda LeBlanc
• This Friday, Feb. 15
• 330 pm
• 1710 Wood Hall

2
Schedule/Announcements

• E4 is a week from today, Tuesday 2/19
• Thursday, 2/21
• Hand back E4
• Hand out ME1 study objectives
• Review session, ME1, answer questions
• ME1 is the following Tuesday, 2/26
• ME1 covers Units 1-4
• If you missed an exam, you must take ME1 or the
  missing exam score turns into a zero
• If you have taken all the exams to date, I will
  replace your lowest exam score with the ME score
• If you are satisfied with your exam scores to
  date, you get both R 2/21 and T 2/26 off
• There will be no ME for ME1

3
U4 College Teaching and Teaching Technology

• Behavioral analysis of college teaching and
  student study behavior
• Direct Instruction used primarily in elementary
  and secondary schools
• Precision Teaching
• Headsprout web-based reading program for
  children created by behavior analysts

4
Unit 4 College Teaching

• Behavioral analysis of college teaching and
  student studying behavior
• Article by Dr. Jack Michael, helps explain
• Why PSY professors administer more exams and
  require more assignments than professors in other
  departments typically do
• Why I structure PSY 4600 the way I do with study
  objectives, frequent essay examinations and grade
  sheets
• Why, from a behavioral perspective, your study
  behavior may differ in this class vs. other
  classes
• Why some (most of us) procrastinate - when
  studying for exams, writing papers, preparing
  conference presentations, etc.

5
Introduction/Overview to the Michael article

• The teaching technology discussed in the article
  is relevant for the typical college class with
  a course enrollment of 35-40 or more and a clear
  factual content.
• It is not relevant for fine arts (dance,
  sculpting, painting, writing) or other skill
  training such as public speaking, mechanics, etc.
  
• While this technology can be used with small
  classes (15 or fewer students), there are also
  methods that can be equally effective
• Most university classes at colleges and
  universities are the type discussed in the article

6
Overview of Michael article, cont.

• Begins by discussing student motivation to study.
  That is, what types of factors motivate students
  to study hard?
• He discusses a number of factors that are often
  mentioned by individuals (intrinsic interest in
  the subject matter, approval/disapproval of
  others in the study setting, short-term payoffs,
  long-range payoffs of learning the material,
  etc.)
• He argues against each one, concluding that the
  course grade is the only effective motivational
  variable and the only one over which the
  instructor has control.

7
Overview, cont.

• However, even the grade will not be an effective
  motivator if the grade is not important to the
  student
• He further states that if the grade is not
  important to the student, then there is nothing
  an instructor can do to motivate students to
  study
• Many say that grades should not be emphasized -
  Michael disagrees with that perspective - the
  grade is the only motivative factor that the
  instructor has under his/her control and thus
  should be emphasized

8
Overview cont.

• Next, he describes how to structure a course so
  that the course grade is an effective motivator
• Three features that must be present in order for
  students to study hard (SO 12, but stated
  positively)
• The grade must be important to the student
• Studying must be closely (and explicitly) linked
  to the exam/assignment grades and
• The exam/assignment grades must be closely (and
  explicitly) linked to the course grade

(how many, assignment/quiz, have no idea how it
relates to final grade - 10, 20, maybe
checkmark how many I didnt study at all, aced
the test I studied very hard and didnt have a
clue? 2 exams - chapter 4 - graduate course -
didnt know passed/failed)
9
SO 1 Creativity?

• This type of course structure is very
  controversial and has been criticized for a
  number of reasons
• The first criticism This type of course does not
  teach creativity or new knowledge, but only
  teaches students how to parrot back old
  knowledge.
• Michaels response?

Creativity requires an extensive familiarity with
what is already known - an extensive knowledge
base about which one can be creative. For
example, If you dont understand reinforcement,
punishment, shaping, etc., you cannot create an
effective instructional system or develop an
effective training program for individuals with
developmental disabilities.
(need to know the basics so you have something to
be creative about)
10
SO 2 What is the two for one rule? What
does it imply for getting an A or a B?

• In order to get a C in a course, students should
  spend 2 hours outside class studying for every
  hour in class.
• 3 credit hour course 2 x 3 6 hours outside of
  class studying (each and every week) to get a C
• Full credit load of 12-15 credit hours, students
  should be studying 36-45 hours per week for
  C-level performance
• MORE than 2 hours of study per credit hour should
  required for an A or B. For example, 3 hours
  outside per credit hour, 9-10 hours.

(most dont require that, this class - 6 hours
per unit)
11
SO 3 What are two main problems with intrinsic
interest in the subject matter as a motivational
factor?

• While the subject matter may indeed be
  interesting to students, it is usually not
  sufficiently interesting to maintain the amount
  of study required to master the material
• A student may be passionate about behavior
  analysis, love 4600, but that is not likely to
  maintain 9-12 hours of studying each week
• Competing activities that are not postponable
  while studying is. You can always study
  tomorrow - but sometimes tomorrow never comes
• Friend drops by - lets go out
• Baby/child gets sick
• Football game/play isnt available at any other
  time

(in general, second reason is main reason, be
sure to include - not postponable)
12
SO 4 Why is it that short-term advantages from
the newly acquired material do not motivate
studying?

• 4A Many content courses, unlike automobile
  mechanics, do not have many short-term advantages
  to the student rather
• 4B They are important for further learning
• You cant run before you can walk
• You cant master the material in 4600 unless you
  have mastered the material in 3600
• You cant master algebra unless you master
  arithmetic

13
SO 5 Briefly describe the weakness of long-
range payoffs related to the details of the
study assignment.
Note the answer is not the delay or temporal
remoteness, even though that is a problem as well.

• It is easy to believe that you can contribute to
  the human condition - that is, be a successful
  behavior analyst - without understanding the
  specific details of the study assignment
• It is easy to believe that you can be an
  effective human service worker, OBM practitioner,
  clinical psychologist, etc. without knowing SOs
  5, 14, 20 and 26 from Unit 4 in Dickinsons PSY
  4600.

14
SO 6 So why are grades the best motivational
factor to motivate student studying?

• It is the one motivational factor over which the
  instructor has control - the only one (we cant
  control intrinsic interest, we cant control
  whether others in the environment support
  scholarly performance, etc.)
• It can be easily related to the details of the
  study assignment (we can make SOs 5, 14, 20
  from U4 important by relating them to the
  exam/assignment)
• It is a factor of considerable strength - that
  is, it is important to most students as evidenced
  by the intensity of study/work right before an
  exam or right before an assignment is due

(Three points)
15
SO 7 Vicious vs. Friendly Competition and
their relationship to norm-referenced
vs. criterion- referenced grading
practices.

• Many criticize emphasizing grades because it
  generates competition and competition is bad.
• Michael distinguishes between vicious and
  friendly competition, and agrees that vicious
  competition is, indeed, bad, but friendly
  competition is not.
• He then describes grading practices that produce
  vicious competition and those that produce
  friendly competition.
• Norm-referenced grading practices produce vicious
  competition and hence should not be adopted,
  while criterion-referenced grading practices
  produce friendly competition which is OK.

16
SO 7A Norm-referenced grading produces vicious
competition

• Why? The grade you receive depends not only on
  your grade but the grades of other students in
  the class if one student does well, it decreases
  the opportunity for another student to do well
• Grading on a curve 10 of the students get As,
  20 get Bs, 50 or so get Cs
• If one student gets an A, it decreases the
  opportunity for another student to get an A
• This produces vicious competition between
  students you may be happy when someone doesnt
  get an A or a B you are not as likely to help
  someone - if you do, that person may get an A,
  which decreases the opportunity for you to get an
  A
• In fact, some students may actually engage in
  behaviors that will harm anothers student chance
  to get an A (steal relevant books from the
  library)

(physio course, comp exams)
17
SO 7BCriterion-referenced grading does not
produce vicious competition although
it may produce friendly competition

• Why? The grade you get depends only on your
  grade, not on the grades other students get thus
  when one student performs well it does not
  decrease the opportunity for another student to
  do well
• Dickinsons PSY 4600 grading practices any
  student who gets 92 of the points, gets an A.
• Friendly competition Student wants to have the
  highest point score in the class or a student
  wants to beat out another student.
• But this does not produce the type of competition
  that makes a student rejoice in the misfortune of
  other students or refuse to help another student
  because it might decrease his/her own grade.

18
SO 8 Study procrastination scallop

• Many people maintain that an exam or assignment
  is an example of a FI schedule of reinforcement,
  which produces the typical response scallop.
  (not much behavior in the beginning of the
  interval, more and more behavior as the interval
  progresses and reinforcement gets close).
• Not so! And the reasons are the same as the
  reasons we examined last unit with respect to why
  a paycheck is not an example of a FI schedule.
• So how do we explain the scallop in
  studying/working that occurs right before the
  exam?
• How is that scallop behavior related to the exam
  grade and the course grade?

19
SO 8 Continued Procrastination Scallop

• To understand this, it helps to know that the
  analysis Michael presents is a molecular
  analysis.
• Underlying position that if a consequence follows
  a behavior by more than 5 to 60 seconds, it is
  not a direct-acting contingency that is, that
  consequence cannot directly affect the behavior
  as reinforcement, punishment, etc.
• Rather the effect that the consequence has is due
  to other variables, such as verbal behavior.
• Michael is a molecular behavior analyst (as most
  others in the department) and thus explains the
  procrastination scallop using a molecular
  analysis where the consequence of studying must
  occur within 5 to 60 seconds after the behavior
  of studying

20
SO 8 Procrastination Scallop, A molecular
behavioral analysis

• 8A The relationship between two factors affects
  studying (Note carefully, not just one or the
  other!)
• Task completion how much of the task the student
  has completed
• Time passage the time left before the exam or
  assignment
• 8B Task completion and time passage together
  determine the aversiveness of the situation at
  any point in time before the exam is taken or the
  assignment is due

(be careful not to put this in your own words)
21
SO 8 Procrastination Scallop, A molecular
behavioral analysis

• 8B Task completion and time passage together
  determine the aversiveness of the situation at
  any point in time before the exam is taken or the
  assignment is due
• To have completed most of the task and have a
  good deal of time left is safe or nonaversive
• But to have completed very little of the task and
  have very little time left is a condition that is
  dangerous or aversive
• It is the aversiveness that generates escape
  behavior

(note that the studying does not become aversive
the situation becomes aversive)
22
SO 8B Continued

• Usually, the only relevant form of escape (that
  is, the only way to reduce the aversiveness) is
  to study (or work on the assignment)
• The reinforcement for studying is the escape from
  the aversiveness - the change in status to a less
  dangerous condition
• That is, the studying behavior decreases the
  existing aversiveness - the decrease in the
  aversiveness is an immediate negatively
  reinforcing consequence

(I am going to first show you the diagram which
is 8C, then talk about why the scallop occurs)
23
SO 8C The Diagram of the Behavioral Contingency
which is an Escape Contingency

• MO (aversiveness)R (studying)--gtSr- (decrease in
  aversiveness)

• Pre-existing aversiveness is an MO
• Studying is the escape behavior
• Reinforcement is the decrease in the pre-existing
• aversiveness which negatively reinforces
  studying

Note that the term is aversive, not adversive
24
SO 8B So, what produces the scallop? That is why
do (most) students study more and more as the
time interval passes?

• Because the aversiveness increases as the time
  interval passes and students have not completed
  the task/assignment
• That is, the pre-existing aversiveness, the MO
  becomes stronger and stronger the closer the exam
  if students have not completed the assignment
• Just like the colder you are, the more cold
  terminating behaviors you are going to engage in
  (or warmth generating)

(or the hungrier you are, or the more tired you
are)
25
SO 8D Again, what reinforces studying?

• To repeat The reinforcement for studying is the
  decrease in the pre-existing aversive condition
  immediate negative reinforcement (escape)
• As soon as you study, there is a decrease in the
  aversiveness
• The more you study, the greater the decrease
• The reinforcement for studying is NOT the
  avoidance of a bad grade on the exam/assignment
• The grade is too delayed, it does not occur
  within 5 - 60 seconds after studying

(many students get this wrong last slide on this
topic)
26
SO 9 End-of-Course Activity

• Why does an end-of-course activity (like a final
  exam or paper worth 50-75 of the students
  grade) weaken the relation between the exam
  grades and the course grades?

Students can quite correctly believe that a low
score on an earlier exam or assignment can be
compensated for by a high score on the final exam
or paper. But what often happens? You run out of
time because all of your courses kick in at the
end. So no final exam in Dickinsons PSY 4600!!!
27
SO 10 Reasons professors give for their
unwillingness to clearly specify what is going to
be on the exam

• Many professors are highly critical of study
  objectives on the grounds that we are spoon
  feeding students.
• Professors often give two reasons for not wanting
  to specify what is going to be on the exam
• You will only learn what the professor tells you
  to learn without specification you will learn
  all of the other things you wouldnt learn if you
  didnt know what was going to be on the exam
• Dickinson says not so! If you are examined over
  4-5 chapters, do you really learn everything in
  those 4-5 chapters?
• Part of the scholars repertoire consists of
  bringing order out of chaos and dealing with the
  instructors vague assignments is a good
  opportunity to learn this skill
• Not so again!!! (read material out of
  interest)

28
SO 11 In large enrollment classes what controls
attendance and what does NOT control attendance?

• What does control attendance?
• How essential the lecture material is for doing
  well on the exam - (note material in red!)
• What does NOT control attendance?
• How interesting or inspirational the lectures
  are
• Faculty do not have to do dog and pony shows
  to get students to attend class.
• Of course, all things being equal, interesting
  is better than boring!

(shy)
29
SO 12 The three conditions under which the
threat of a low grade will NOT motivate studying

• If the grade is not important to the student
• The relation between studying for the exam and
  the grade on the exam is not clear
• The relation between the exam grade and the
  course grade is not clear

30
SO 14 Exam frequency and motivation to study
Provide two reasons why exams that are given once
every three weeks (let alone two exams per
semester) will not have the same motivational
effect as exams that are given weekly.

• 1. The procrastination scallop most students
  will wait to study until the week of the exam
• If I require 6 or more hours of outside studying
  for each exam (for a C), if I gave an exam every
  three weeks instead of every 1 1/2 weeks, it
  would require 12 or more hours of study. If I
  gave just a mid-term and final, that would be
  about 7 weeks or about 4.5 units, which would
  require 27 hours or more of studying.
• It is absurd to think that students will spend
  27 hours studying for the exam during that one
  week.

(one reason why professors use norm-referenced
grading - no one does well)
31
SO 14 Second reason why exams that are
givenonce every three weeks (let alone twice a
semester)will not have the same motivational
effect as weekly exams.

• 2. I have 1 1/2 hours for the exam, regardless of
  how often I give the exams. If I gave an exam
  only once every three weeks, I could not sample
  as much material from the study objectives - that
  is I could not ask questions over as many of the
  study objectives
• Why and how does this affect student studying?
• Students know that I cannot test over all of the
  study objectives, hence they will begin to try to
  guess which ones I will ask and not study all of
  the objectives. They will gamble about which
  items I will have test questions over

(also less accurate assessment for me, but that
is not related to student studying, faculty Who
give out 70 or more SOs for the exam and then
only ask questions on very small Proportion)
32
SO 15 Why learning cant be fun and easy

• Many argue that learning should be fun and easy.
  Not so, says Michael. He says it cant be fun and
  easy for two reasons.
• Intensity there is too much to learn in too
  little time
• Assessment there is a chance that the student
  will not get the grade he/she wants on the exams
  and assignments
• Note carefully, it is NOT simply that the exams
  and assignments are given - if every student got
  an A on every exam/assignment, then assessment
  would not cause students a problem
• (Learn each factor and be able to explain them.)

33
Not for exam but why should grades be emphasized?

• Grades are the primary motivative variable,
  which means that current standing in the class
  and progress toward the final grade should always
  be clear and frequently brought to the students
  attention.
• Hence, the grade sheet.

34
Questions on the Michael article?
35
Unit 4 Teaching Technology Introduction
In this part of the unit we are going to be
looking at three empirically-based instructional
technologies for primary and secondary schools

• Direct Instruction - Engelmann, Becker Carnine
• Precision Teaching - Lindsley
• Headsprout - a relatively new web-based reading
  program developed by a team of behavior analysts
  (2002)
• Greg Stikeleather, Dept. alumni award

(empirically-based, proven through research to be
effective, Croyden schools?) Engelmann, BA in
education. Becker Carnine - behavioral
psychologists Oakland Academy - Foundation for
behavioral resources)
36
Teaching Technology Intro continued

• Educational crisis in this country
• Our students rank about last in math/science of
  all industrialized countries in the world
• 40 of our 4th-graders read below basic levels
• Yet schools and educators have been very slow to
  adopt empirically-validated instructional
  technology in the schools
• Probably the biggest disappointment of behavior
  analysts
• But, there is hope No Child Left Behind
• Carnine is an advisor to President Bush

(read some of the material in the course pack -
not behavior analysts)
37
Direct Instruction Basics

• Task analysis is completed for all instructional
  material
• Material is presented in small steps so students
  will be successful the first time
• Material is sequenced so if students master the
  prerequisite material they will be successful
• Scripts are used to insure correct implementation
  and student success - based on research
• Students are placed in small groups of 5 - 10
• Students respond aloud on cue
• Immediate feedback, both reinforcement and
  corrective is provided

38
Precision Teaching Basics

• Often use DI material/lessons
• Adds a fluency component - accuracy plus speed of
  responding is assessed ( corrects per minute).
  Based on rate of response used in behavioral
  research
• Timed practice, graph results - only 30 of time
  is spent on instruction, 70 on practice
• Students work with each other during practice
  sessions
• Students do not progress to the next lesson until
  fluency aims are met - all have the same aims
  which are based on research
• Often combined with a token economy system in
  which students earn points for results and
  appropriate instructional behaviors (feet on
  floor, eye contact, etc.)
• Often report cards are provided for parents daily

(before SO16, show you some results of DI, PT
SOs a little out of order)
39
SO17 Introduction to Englemanns early study
(1970)

• Some maintain that 60-80 of intelligence is
  genetic and only 20-40 is a function of
  learning that is you have it or you dont and
  if your parents and grandparents didnt have it,
  you wont either (Bell Curve, Murray
  Herrnstein)
• They also maintain that a persons IQ cannot be
  changed much after the first couple of years
• Therefore, early educational programs (such as
  Head Start) and social programs are a waste of
  tax payer dollars.

(What is intelligence? What is measured by IQ
tests? Math, verbal, social situations and
sequences)
40
SO17 Englemanns early study (1970)

• Participants were all 4 years old
• 15 disadvantaged children exposed to traditional
  teaching methods
• 15 disadvantaged children exposed to DI
• 15 middle class children exposed to DI
• Independent variable
• DI for language concept, arithmetic, and reading
• Three 20-min instructional sessions per day for
  two years
• Total of 96 instructional hours
• Dependent variable
• Stanford-Binet IQ test scores
• Experimental design
• Between-group experimental design

41
SO17 Results of Engelmanns Study IQ Scores
42
SO17 Summary of Results

• IQ scores after two years
• Disadvantaged four-year olds exposed to DI
  increased their IQ scores by about 25 points
  from 95.33 to 121.08
• Disadvantaged four-year olds exposed to
  traditional education increased their IQ scores
  by only about 5 points from 94.50 to 99.61
• Disadvantaged and advantaged four-year olds
  exposed to DI had similar IQ scores 121.08 and
  123.43, respectively

43
SO17 Implications

• IQ scores can be affected by instruction and
  changed after the very early stages of life
  (argues against heredity)
• DI can eliminate differences in the IQ scores of
  disadvantaged and advantaged children,
  differences that are not eliminated via
  traditional educational methods

44
Snyder Article Morningside Academy, Seattle, WA

• Morningside Academy
• Private school (tuition) Dr. Kent Johnson
• Combines Precision Teaching with Direct
  Instruction
• Dr. Johnson offers 2-4 week practicum
  opportunities in the summer to graduate students
  (web site address is in the SOs)
• While usually restricted to graduate students,
  our WMU undergraduates have been accepted,
  depending upon letters of support from us
• One of our undergrads attended the 4-week
  practicum last summer
• Scholarships, but students must fund their own
  housing and meals

45
Morningside Academy, cont.

• Money-back guarantee for tuition
• If a student does not gain at least two years or
  more in all skill-deficit areas in one year,
  Morningside refunds 100 of the tuition
• Success rate years different than article
• In the 28 years of its operations, Morningside
  has never refunded a students tuition
• SO19 Serves primarily students diagnosed with
  learning disability problems and ADHD who are
  failing in the regular school system also has a
  program for adults who are not literate.

SO 18, but not for the exam
(years different because the school started in
1980 and article was published in 1992)
46
Morningside Academy, cont. again

• SO 20 Average gains in grade levels for reading,
  language arts, and math for the last two years
  reported in the article (89-90 and 90-91)?

3.07 per academic year!!
Note that these gains are primarily for at-risk
kids. Those diagnosed as learning disabled or
ADHD.
47
Morningside Academys Adult Literacy Program(Not
for the Exam)

• Federally-funded literacy program through YMCA
• Pilot program for adults, Precision Teaching
• Did not know whether adults would like PT and
  thus attend instructional sessions
• Did not know how well PT would work with these
  individuals, given their generally low skill
  levels
• 32 participants
• Some were homeless
• Some were in and out of jail

48
Representative Results Morningside Adult
Literacy Pilot Program
1 month 20 hours of instruction
49
What guarantee does Morningside make its adult
clients based on the results? (Again Not for the
Exam)

• Each adult learner will gain two years or more
  per month in reading, writing and math skills if
  those adults meet the requirement of attending
  for two hours per day, four days a week.
• Notice that is only 20 hours of instruction per
  month!

(now back to SO 16)
50
SO16 Three reasons why traditional educators
object to Direct Instruction Precision Teaching

If these methods are so good, why arent they
being taught in schools of education and why
dont teachers like them?

• They are not self-directed that is the methods
  are too controlled by the teacher
• They are not individualized every child/learner
  is exposed to the same material in the same
  sequence and must meet the same goals
• They do not focus on affective outcomes - that
  is, self-esteem or making students feel good
  about themselves.
• Teachers feel the scripted lessons take away from
  their flexibility and creativity. Why did I go to
  school and get a teaching degree if I am being
  told exactly what to say and when to say it?
  (not in study objectives - not required)

(philosophical reasons - educational philosophy
child centered learning development) 4th reason a
practical, not philosophical reason, Siefert
article teachers resent it because It is so
scripted but is it about me being happy or the
students learning?)
51
SO21 What factors are often blamed for the
educational crisis?

• Traditional educators tend to blame Johnny or
  Suzie, the culture at large, socio-economic
  reasons - Johnny cant read because he comes from
  a bad neighborhood or bad home.
• Traditional educators often see the key(s) to be
  a longer school year, higher pay for teachers,
  right now no recess, etc.
• DI PT advocates maintain that the key to
  solving the educational crisis in this country is
  better instructional material If Johnny or Suzie
  is not learning the instructional material is the
  blame, not Johnny, Suzie or their home
  environment

(while I am going to get in trouble - the rat is
always right! Lab - lever) Neither they nor their
instruction is at fault part of their
student-centered philosophy.)
52
SO 24 What is fluency?

• The rationale behind fluency first
• We usually measure only accuracy of performance -
  100, 90, etc.
• Rate of performance or fluency is also important
• If one child scores 100 on a math test and
  completes it in one hour, but another scores 100
  and completes it in one-half hour, is their
  performance equal or is the second childs
  performance better?
• PT not only measures accuracy but also speed of
  performance
• Only 30 of classroom time is taken by the
  delivery of instruction 70 is spent practicing
  using work sheets.
• Students take several 1-minute timings and chart
  their performance on a graph for the timings
• So, back to the question, what is fluency? (next
  slide)

53
SO24 Fluency
So, SO25A, what is fluency?

• Fluency is a measure of accuracy plus speed.

And, SO24B, how is fluency specifically measured?
The number of correct answers per minute and the
number of incorrect answers per minute during
timed practice.
54
Not for the exam Fluency Aims (standards/goals)
Fluency aims are based on research to

• Insure retention/maintenance over time
• Enable the skill to generalize to settings other
  than the one in which it was taught
• If you teach basic math, you want kids to be able
  to buy things and count correct change
• Enable correct responding in spite of
  distractions in the environment and in spite of
  being tired.

Because aims are empirically developed to achieve
the above results, aims are not individualized.
Every child must meet the same aims before
proceeding to the next lesson/material.
55
SO25 Rationale for scripted lessons

• In DI, every lesson is scripted and the teacher
  is to follow the script exactly
• Why?

The particular wording, examples and sequences
have been pre-tested to insure the success of the
students.
Not for the exam, but teachers do not have the
time, nor is it their job, to conduct research on
instructional material. They are practitioners
not researchers They already have a very
difficult, time-consuming job (and class sizes
are getting larger all the time).
56
SOs 26-30 Introduction to Watkins article on
Project Follow-Through

• Largest study that has evaluated the
  effectiveness of different instructional systems
• Government-funded study
• Conducted over 30 years ago
• The study began in 1968 and we have had the
  results since 1977

57
SOs 26-30 Project Follow-Through, cont.

• Three major conceptual categories of educational
  systems
• Basic Skills
• Cognitive-Conceptual
• Affective-Cognitive
• Examined 20 different instructional methods that
  fell into one of the three categories above in 15
  different school districts

58
SOs 2627 Primary areas of emphasis for each
major conceptual category and the category for DI

• Basic Skills (DI)
• Basic skills reading, arithmetic, spelling,
  etc.
• Cognitive-Conceptual
• Learning to learn
• Problem solving skills
• Affective-Cognitive
• Development of good self-concept and positive
  attitudes toward learning
• Learning to learn

(only need to learn the primary, although I have
also indicated secondary)
59
SO28 Results I have asked you to learn
To be fair to each model, the researchers also
measured the childrens basic skills, cognitive
skills, and affect

• DI was the only model to produce gains in all
  three areas measured basic skills, cognitive
  skills, and affect
• DI ranked first in basic skills, cognitive skills
  and affect
• Educational models, other than those that fell
  into the Basic Skills category, (that is, all
  those in the cognitive-conceptual and
  affective-cognitive categories) had poorer
  results than the traditional educational systems
  currently being used

60
SO29 DI PT ranked first and second in
affective skills even though neither targets or
emphasizes them
What theory of self-concept isnt supported by
these results?
In order to learn, you must first have a good
self-concept and a positive attitude toward
learning. That is, a good self-concept is a
prerequisite for learning. Suzie Johnny must
feel good about themselves before they can learn.
What theory of self-concept is supported by the
results?
Success in learning produces a good self
concept. Suzy Johnny will feel good about
themselves if they are successful in learning.
(pretty interesting given that the
affective-cognitive models targeted affect
directly. Also interesting because traditional
educators still object to DI PT on that ground)
61
SO30 Behavioral diagram of the relation between
learning and a good self-concept
R ----gt Academic
activities
Sc Signs of success
CS
CR Good self-concept
(self-concept emotional response)
62
Project Follow-Through Wrap Up (not for the exam)

• DI was shown to be the most effective
  instructional system
• In spite of that, the governmental agency
  responsible for disseminating effective
  instructional systems to school districts around
  the country, endorsed 22 as effective and
  packaged them for distribution
• Among those disseminated were those that had
  failed to improve academic achievement (out of
  fairness)
• Funding guidelines were changed so that the
  programs that were the least successful were
  given more funding than those that were the most
  successful (on the grounds that would help the
  least successful)

(problem is not just the teachers, school
districts)
63
SOs 31-36 Headsprout, a web-based reading
program designed by behavioral psychologists

• Headsprout founders and team includes
• Dr. Kent Johnson, founder of Morningside
• Greg Stikeleather, BA in psychology from WMU
• Developed and ran Apple Computers first
  usability testing laboratory
• Started two software companies one was acquired
  by Microsoft, one was acquired by Netscape
• Dr. Joe Layng, Head of Morningsides Malcolm X
  program
• Dr. Janet Twyman, current President of ABA
• Kelly Hobbins, BA in psychology from WMU
• Melinda Sota, MA in psychology from WMU
• Put on the web in 2002
• Cost 6 million to develop the first 40 lessons
  (the initial program put on the web)

(SOs are very straightforward, but I just wanted
to introduce you to this - its terrific, web
page)
64
SOs 31 33 Why is Headsprout important?

• How many children have literacy problems in our
  country?
• 40
• Over what percentage of our nations fourth
  graders score below basic reading levels?
• 40
• What is the probability that a child will remain
  a poor reader at the end of fourth grade if the
  child is a poor reader at the end of first grade?
• 90
• We need to get to children when they are young
  and teach them the basics

65
SO 32, NFE Headsprout stresses phonics - why?

• Research has shown that phonics is essential in
  order to teach children to read.
• Not for the exam, but notice that this is in
  direct conflict with reading approaches based on
  whole word teaching/learning.
• Research has also shown that the absence of
  explicit phonics instruction can cause learning
  problems that put learners at a permanent
  educational disadvantage unless corrected by the
  end of third grade.

66
About Headsprout Not for the exam

• Incorporates PT concepts of fluency and
  charting/graphing performance of each component
  skill
• On the surface, the program appears to children
  as
• As in interactive cartoon
• Learn reading skills interacting with
  cartoon-based episodes in Space World, Dinosaur
  World, Undersea World, and Jungle World
• They have the same type of refund program as
  Morningside Academy
• For school systems Full refund to schools for
  the price of the product for each Kindergarten or
  1st grade student who is not at or above grade
  level upon completion
• Full refund to individual parents who buy it as
  well

67
About Headsprout, cont.

• They first did lab testing - before they put the
  program on the internet. (not for the exam)
• Standard for most activities was that 90 of
  learners would get 90 of the items correct the
  first time
• SO35A Once the developmental work in their lab
  was completed, they tested it on the internet.
  How many learners participated in the internet
  testing?
• Over 1,000
• SO35B What were the results of that testing?
• Over 90 of the learners got over 90 of the
  items correct

68
About Headsprout, cont. again(Not for the Exam)

• What is their goal for the entire 80-lesson
  Headsprout Early Reading Program?
• Learners who consistently score at or above grade
  level, and
• Kindergarten children with reading skills typical
  of a mid-second grade learner
• Standardized test outcome data from 16 initial
  children who completed the program suggest they
  have accomplished that goal (testing is on-going)
• Individual parents can purchase the Headsprout
  reading program for 99.00 (last time I checked
  the price)

69
Headsprout Web Site

• www.headsprout.com/

70
The End

• Questions?
• Instructional assistance hours Monday, 2/18
• 630-800 PM
• Issac is on tap this time

Dont forget the review study objectives!!