Lecture 2: Moral reasoning I Chapter 2, Martin

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Lecture 2 Moral reasoning I(Chapter 2, Martin
Schinzinger, Ethics in Engineering)

• ELEC4011 Ethics Electrical Engineering Practice
• Hugh Outhred

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The nature of moral inquiry

• Some applications of ethics
• Understanding moral values, resolving moral
  issues justifying moral judgements
• Exploring questions that involve moral issues
• Developing a system of moral values or code of
  ethics
• Defining moral behaviour or right conduct
• What ought to be done in a particular situation
• What is right or wrong in how a situation was
  handled
• What is good or bad about people, policies or
  beliefs

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The nature of moral inquiry

• Types of inquiry
• Normative- to identify moral values
• Conceptual- to clarify concepts or ideas
• Factual- to explore specific situations or
  problems
• Types of moral judgement
• Actions- morally right or wrong
• People- morally responsible or irresponsible
• Objective- consistency in reasoning decisions

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Moral problems in engineering

• Typical situations involve a moral dilemma
• Interests of an employer versus the public
  interest, e.g
• Unsafe products or built-in obsolescence
• Extravagant claims of product performance
• Interests of one community versus another, e.g
• A power station that causes local or global
  pollution
• The impact of war on civilian populations
• Pertinent moral questions
• What is the extent of an engineers
  responsibility?
• When should one not obey orders of superiors?

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Four approaches to moral reasoning

• Virtue ethics
• Virtues vices (good evil behaviour
  character)
• Utilitarianism
• Actions that give the most good for the most
  people
• Duty ethics
• Actions based on duties that respect persons
• Rights ethics
• Actions that respect inalienable human rights
• Some philosophers extend the scope to include
  animals

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Virtue ethics professionalism

• Cardinal principles of the IEAust code of ethics
• To respect the inherent dignity of the individual
• To act on the basis of a well-informed conscience
• To act in the interests of the community
• These principles are duties that express virtues
• Virtuous ways to interact with others
• Desirable features of character
• Equity is a core value

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Conceptual basis for virtue ethics

• Aristotles definitions of virtues (350 BC)
• Habits that enable us to engage effectively in
  rational activities
• Cardinal virtues- wisdom, courage, temperance,
  justice
• The golden mean between too much too little
• Cowardice - Courage - Rashness
• Macintyres definition of virtues (20th century)
• Social practices that achieve public good, e.g
• Professional responsibility in engineering
• Virtues are particularly valuable for group
  activity

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Virtues professional responsibility

• Self-direction virtues
• Moral autonomy good judgement
• Self-knowledge self-respect
• Commitment integrity
• Public-spirited virtues
• Non-malfience
• do no harm
• Beneficence
• prevent or remove harm
• Generosity
• beyond normal expectations

• Team-work virtues
• Collegiality
• Respect for legitimate authority
• Communication skills
• Proficiency virtues
• Mastery of technical skills
• Diligence
• Creativity
• Accountability virtues
• Act responsibly
• Admit mistakes accept an appropriate share of
  blame

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Issues in applying virtue ethics

• Virtues may contradict each other, e.g
• Truthfulness tact
• Loyalty to employer vs responsibility to the
  public
• Virtues provide general not specific advice
• Most useful in establishing a general code of
  conduct
• Different societies rank virtues differently,
  e.g
• Collegiality versus self-reliance
• Judgement is required in practical application
• May have to rank virtues to resolve a moral
  dilemma

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Utilitarianism

• Mill- Act utilitarianism (19th century)
• Act to maximise happiness for all concerned
• (intellectual) happiness is the only intrinsic
  good
• Focus on individual acts rather than general
  rules
• Rules (eg. dont deceive) can be broken to
  achieve greater good in a particular case
• Brandt- Rule utilitarianism (20th century)
• Moral codes are primary even if they dont always
  produce the greatest good
• The best moral code produces the greatest good
• Intrinsic goods include rational (informed)
  desires

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Cost-benefit analysis

• 20th century attempt to quantify utilitarianism
• Compare the costs benefits associated with an
  act
• Choose actions for which benefits exceed costs
• Issues in applying cost-benefit analysis
• Requires quantification of costs benefits
• may not be easy, e.g value of a human life
• Requires quantification of uncertainty risk
• e.g risk of cancer due to exposure to
  electromagnetic fields
• Distribution of costs benefits may differ
  greatly
• Equity issues, e.g choosing the site for a new
  airport

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Issues in applying utilitarianism

• Act-utilitarianism biased towards self-interest
• The decision maker should be impartial
• Rule-utilitarianism supports codes of ethics
• May give non-optimal outcomes in some cases
• Where specific issues are of over-riding concern
• Cost-benefit analysis can be too narrow
• Some costs benefits difficult to quantify
• Distribution of costs benefits may differ

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Duty ethics

• Kant- respect for persons (19th century)
• Based on duties (not consequences) that
• Express respect for the autonomy of others
• Are universal principles
• Express unqualified commands (e.g. be honest)
• Rawls two principles (20th century)
• A person is entitled to the greatest liberty
  compatible with an equal amount for others
• Differences in social power economic benefits
  are only justifiable when they benefit the
  disadvantaged

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Basis for Rawls principles

• They would be agreed to by a rational person who
• Had a general knowledge of the human condition
  but
• Lacked all specific knowledge about him/herself
• Had concern for his or her long term interests
• Agreed to abide by the principles

Issues in applying duty ethics

• Require compromise to resolve moral dilemmas
• Prima facie duties- may be waved in some
  situations
• Ranking, e.g. protect life before keep
  promises

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Rights ethics

• Locke- liberty rights (17th century)
• Life, liberty the property generated by labour
• Used as a basis for libertarian ideology
• Self-reliance rejection of state intervention
• Melden- liberty welfare rights (20th century)
• Human rights in the context of communities
• Each individual must be provided with
• A valued role in society, the capacity to show
  concern to be accountable
• Welfare systems may be required to guarantee this

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Issues in applying rights ethics

• Special rights can be derived from basic rights
• The right to have promises kept
• The right to privacy
• Implications for database internet design
• An engineers right to warn of danger to the
  public
• The right to a meaningful occupation
• Important implications for automation
• Require compromise to resolve moral dilemmas
• Be careful to rank rights rather than people
• A right is only meaningful if it can be excercised

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Relationship between ethics laws

• A legal framework (set of laws)
• Developed by a State with authority to enforce
• Penalty-based- punishment for illegal behaviour
• Ethics
• A code for personal (or group) behaviour
• Incentive-based- personal group esteem
• Laws lag behind social technical change, e.g
• Genetic engineering, rules for use of the
  internet
• Ethics matter for engineers- they intend to
  innovate

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Summary

• Engineering innovation changes the way we live
• moral dilemmas can easily arise
• The interests of an employer may conflict with
  the public interest
• Moral reasoning is concerned with distinguishing
  right from wrong
• The four main approaches to moral reasoning all
  provide useful insights on ethical behaviour
• Virtue ethics, utilitarianism, duty ethics
  rights ethics