The Research Process

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The Research Process

• From the abstract world of ideas to the concrete
  world of research

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Where Do Ideas for Research Originate?

• A research project is the outgrowth of 4
  factors
• The Researcher
• The Academic Environment
• The Psychology Literature
• The Broader Culture

3
Formulating a Research Question

• The research question a very specific, narrowly
  focused question, often a piece carved out of a
  bigger topic.
• How? Consult the literature to see what aspects
  of the topic have already been researched.
• Carefully word the research question to be
  precise and concise.
• (Note that the title of a journal article often
  contains the research question.)

4
Research is Embedded in Culture

• While we like to think of the scientific method
  as being beyond cultural bias, research
  questions, theories, and even some aspects of
  method are all influenced by the culture within
  which the scientist lives.

5
The problem of ethnocentrism (ethnocentric bias)

• Inaccuracy that occurs when we try to understand
  the behavior of individuals in a different
  culture (or subculture) through the framework or
  views of the dominant culture.

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Ethnocentrism in Research

• All aspects of a project reflect assumptions and
  value judgments that are embedded in the culture.
• Examples
• The tendency for research on the elderly or
• disabled to focus on deficits
• (what the person cannot do).
• Research on single-parent or gay families, where
  the wording of the question implies these family
  types are not as good for children as more
  traditional families.

7
Economic and Political Factors

• What areas are of interest?
• Trends, styles, fads
• Availability of funding
• Controversial Hypotheses
• Political Correctness

8
Choosing a Research Design

• The nature of the research question will
  determine the type of research design to use.
• A research design is a plan for answering a
  research question.

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4 types of designs are available to answer 4
basic types of questions

• Observational designs What does this behavior
  look like? How often does the behavior occur?
  Under what circumstances?
• Correlational designs Is one type of behavior
  associated with another? Is there a relationship
  between variables?
• Experimental designs Exposing the underlying
  causes of behavior Does x cause y?
• Quasi-experimental designs Tries to expose
  causal factors when variable cannot be
  manipulated.

10
Four Goals of Research/Four Research Designs

• Observational
• Correlational
• Experimental
• Quasi-experimental

• Describe
• Predict
• Understand
• Create Change

11
The Relationship Between Theory and Research

• The Process of Building Knowledge

12
A Theory

• Theory has several meanings (casual) a
  personal idea or belief , vs. a scientific theory
• A scientific theory is a set of ideas, formally
  stated, that seeks to explain how an aspect of
  nature works.
• Research cannot prove a theory,
• only support it. Why is this so?

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3 Functions of a Theory

• To EXPLAIN a phenomenon or aspect of behavior.
• To ORGANIZE existing knowledge about a
  phenomenon.
• To GENERATE HYPOTHESES (PREDICTIONS) about a
  phenomenon, to be tested through research.
• Research findings then reflect back upon the
  theory, supporting it or suggesting a need for
  modification.

14
Theories differ in scope

• Broad theories
• Freud, Darwin
• Narrow theories (limited in scope) (Piagets
  Theory Kohlbergs theory of moral development,
  Attachment theory).

15
What is a good theory?

• One that is
• Parsimonious
• Clear precise
• Logical
• Generates hypotheses for research

16
Does All Research Test A Theory?

• Most published research reports are not tests of
  a particular theory.
• Researchers do attempt to refer to and include
  theories in their write-up.

17
Predicting An Outcome

• Not only does the researcher have to commit to a
  very specific question, you may have to commit to
  a predicted outcomefor your study.
• This prediction is the research hypothesis.
• Research that is purely descriptive doesnt need
  to state an hypothesis.

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The Research Hypothesis

• Definition an hypothesis is a formal prediction
  of the studys outcome (what will be found).
• It is an educated guess, based one or more of the
  following
• Psychological theories
• Researchers observations
• Previous published research

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Defining Concepts for Measurement

• Operational Definitions
• Variables

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Proceeding to Test the Hypothesis (answering the
research question)

• Concepts must be defined in terms that are
  observable and measurable.
• This function is achieved through creating
  operational definitions for the concepts.

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An Operational Definition How will you define
anxiety for this study?

• An operational definition transforms an abstract
  concept into something measurable, like scores on
  a test.
• The O.D. describes a concept solely in terms of
  the operations or methods that will be used to
  measure it.

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Operational Definitions

• How could you operationally define anxiety?
• How many operational
• definitions exist for a single concept?

23
Variables

• A variable is an aspect of reality that varies
  in its value or dimension (either naturally or
  because the researcher caused it to vary.)
• Concrete variables height, reaction time,
• heart rate, room temperature
• Abstract variables self-esteem, anxiety,
  motivation, communication style
• Operational definitions of concepts give the
  researchers the variables for the study.

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2 Types of Variables

• Researchers work with variables in
• 2 different ways
• Variables can be measured.
• Variables can be manipulated (experimental
  designs only).

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Independent Dependent Variables

• Independent Variable a variable that is
  manipulated in an experiment to provide
  participants with different experiences.
• Dependent Variable a variable that is measured
  in an experiment in order to see any effects of
  the independent variable.
• Not all designs use independent variables

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Loftus Burns (1982) study of factors affecting
memory accuracy under stress

• Research Question How will witnessing an
  emotionally shocking event affect memory for
  details?
• Hypothesis Individuals who see an emotionally
  shocking event will have poorer memory for
  details than individuals who do not see the event
  (Loftus Burns, 1982)
• Loftus, E. F., Burns, T. E. (1982). Mental
  shock can produce retrograde amnesia. Memory
  Cognition, 10, 318-323.

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Independent Dependent Variables Loftus Burns
(1982)

• Independent Variable?
• (manipulated)
• ____________

• Dependent Variable?
• (measured)
• ___________

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Haydens 1997 Study

• Research Question
• Are mothers consistent in their style of
  speaking with their different children?
• Hypothesis
• Variables