Myers

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Myers PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed)

• Chapter 8
• Learning
• James A. McCubbin, PhD
• Clemson University
• Worth Publishers

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Learning p. 308

• Learning relatively permanent change in an
  organisms behavior due to experience
• Shapes
• thoughts
• language
• motivations
• attitudes
• Personalities
• emotions
• Even the simplest of species learn by associating
  2 things

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Association

• We learn by association
• Association how our minds naturally connect
  events that occur in sequence
• How we associate 1 thing with another thing that
  happens AFTER it
• Aristotle 2000 years ago John Locke David
  Hume 200 years ago knew about learning from
  association
• Associative Learning
• learning that two events occur togetherexpecting
  2nd thing to happen if the 1st happens
• two stimuli a response its consequences
• 1) Lightening ? 2) BOOOM!!! fear (Response)

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Association Can be automatic OR by choice

• Learning to associate 2 events
• Snail just water, will habituate
• If shock added, response is stronger continues
• Get automatic response
• Seals chooses to do something to gain something
• b/c associates reward w/ some activity
• (SL 46... eyes!)

Event 1
Event 2
Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock
Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy
antics
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Classical or Pavlovian (associative) Conditioning

• Learning to associate 2 stimuli (flash BOOM)
• Conditioning process of learning associations
• 3 types
• Classical conditioning (involuntary)
• Operant conditioning
• Observational learning if voluntary
• (2 3 voluntary)

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Operant Conditioning

• We learn to associate a response its
  consequence
• If we do something, we cause something else to
  happen

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Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov
• 1849-1936
• Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
• Nobel Prize in 1904
• Studied digestive secretions (salivating reflex)
  in animals especially using dogs

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Classical Conditioning

• Pavlovs device for recording salivation

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Classical Conditioning Basic Terms

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCSakaUS)
• stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and
  naturally--triggers a response
• Unconditioned Response (UCRakaUR)
• unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
  unconditioned stimulus
• salivation when food is in the mouth
• Neutral stimulus (NS) originally irrelevant
  stimulus that, after association with an
  unconditioned stimulus, becomes the conditioned
  stimulus
• CONDITIONED Stimulus (CS) triggers a
  conditioned response
• Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a
  previously neutral conditioned stimulus

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Pavlovs Classic Experiment UCS, UCR NS CS,
CR (note NS not in yr bk but does show up)
Before Conditioning
UCS (food in mouth)
Neutral stimulus (tone)
No salivation
UCR (salivation)
During Conditioning
After Conditioning
UCS (food in mouth)
CS (tone)
Neutral stimulus (tone)
UCR (salivation)
CR (salivation)
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• Classical Conditioning
• organism comes to associate two stimuli
• a neutral stimulus (NS) that signals an
  unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a
  response that anticipates and prepares for the
  unconditioned stimulus
• UCS UCR (naturally occurring)
• NS no response at 1st
• UCS NS UCR then CS CR
• For Pavlovs dog salivation on the board ID
  the following
• UCS UCR NS bell
• Food saliva
• UCS (NS) UCR then CS
  CR
• Food bell saliva bell
  saliva

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Behaviorism Look at observable behaviors ONLY

• John B. Watson Watson was 1 of very 1st
  behaviorists
• Developed the with the terms behaviorism
  behaviorist relating to this type of study
• Viewed psychology as objective science
• Psychologists still agree w/ this today
• recommended study of behavior w/o reference to
  unobservable mental processes
• This is Not still accepted by all psych schools
  of thought today (cognition? emotion?)

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Neat little trick! ?
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Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition You acquire (gain) an
• association
• Initial (1st) stage in classical conditioning
• Phase associating a neutral stimulus (NS) with an
  unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that the NS
  begins to elicit (bring on) a conditioned
  response (CR)
• It is how you paired UCS NS to get CS
• In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a
  reinforced response

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Acquisition of sexual response to onion breath!!
?
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Conditioning

• Extinction
• Getting rid (diminishing) of a CR
• in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not
  follow a CSmay be 1 timeor morelessens then
  stops
• EX Dog hears footsteps (bell, etc..) but
  does NOT get the conditioning stimuluslike the
  food
• in operant conditioning, when a response is no
  longer reinforced

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Classical Conditioning

• Spontaneous Recovery
• reappearance, after a rest period, of an
  extinguished (or extincted) CR
• Generalization
• tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit
  similar responses
• Discrimination only responding to a specific
  stimulus
• - can tell the difference between
• in classical conditioning, the learned ability to
  distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that
  do not signal a UCS

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Classical Conditioning
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Generalization
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Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients Taste
Aversion comes from associating last food
ingested (or a situation) b4 throwing up learns
to avoid that foodor situation
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• Classical conditioning in Cancer patients
• How our brain makes a biological connection
  Taste Aversion

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• Pavlovs legacy Why its still important
  today
• 1) classical conditioning 1 way that
  virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their
  environments
• 2) showed how a mental process such as
  learning can be studied objectively, this
  provided a scientific model of isolating
  elementary building blocks of complex behaviors
  studying them w/ objective lab procedures
• ---------------
• Real EXs of Classical conditioning
• Baby w/ intense nausea Our song!
• Anabuse (w/ alcohol) good food flu
  ugh!

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• Biological Predispositions Certain animals are
  affected more quickly strongly by certain
  things that help them to learn to adapt to their
  environments
• -Rats taste aversion
  -Birds sight aversion

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• Practice ID in each given situations
• UCS UCR NS CS CR
• 1. Little Albert
• 2. Ms. Uptight yells at Mary. Now when M.
  comes to class, she gets nervous, feels
  nauseated, her palms get sweaty
• 3. Tom Ernie think it would be funny to train
  their brothers horse to jump and buck when he
  hears Whoa!
• HOW would they do this??? And ID each of the
  5 above
• ? What is the MAJOR way in which Classical
  Operant Conditioning vary? (V?)

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Scaring the birds!Copying poisonous or
dangerous animals ...
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• Operant Conditioning
• behavior strengthened if followed by
  reinforcement OR diminished (lessened) if
  followed by punishment
• Person makes a choice to do something in order to
  get something or to avoid something
• Law of Effect
• Thorndikes principle rewarded behaviors are
  more likely to recur.
• Then Skinner developed behavior technology,
  that outlined principles of behavior control
• Thorndike came up with a way to show
  thisThorndikes Puzzle Box (See DMA 8)

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• Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment
  to produce consequences
• Respondent Behavior (like Pavlov)
• occurs as an automatic response to stimulus
• behavior learned through classical conditioning
  is respondent
• Which is which? Ask Voluntary response or
  an involuntary response? O or R?
• EXs -Be quiet for 30 min.?
• -Shriek at a loud sound?
• -Get nauseated smelling a food that
• made you sick once?
• -Study harder to pull up a grade?

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Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) most famous of
  behaviorists
• elaborated Thorndikes Law of Effect
• developed behavioral technology (equipment)
• EX the operant chamber (Skinner box) to study
  responses of animals
• Wrote Walden Two perfect society using operant
  principlesalso wrote Beyond Freedom Dignity

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Operant Chamber

• Skinner Box Operant chamber
• chamber with a bar or key that an animal
  manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer
• contains devices (bar, light, button, etc.) to
  record responses counter to keep a record of
  responses
• frequently used w/ rats pigeons

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Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcer an event that strengthens the
  behavior it follows
• Shaping operant conditioning procedure in which
  reinforcers guide behavior toward closer
  approximations of a desired goal
• -little by little, step by step, w/ small
  rewards (reinforcers) along the way until you get
  the behavior you want

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• Chaining putting together, in a series,
  different tasks that have been shaped, to form a
  longer task
• P. 324 Read find 2 EXs on that page of
  shaping (See DMA 9)

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Operant Conditioning (p. 325..note a few
differences)
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• Punishment NOT negative reinforcement!
• aversive event that decreases the behavior that
  it follows
• powerful controller of unwanted behavior (p. 328)

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Principles of Reinforcement A
Contingency of Reinforcement

• Primary Reinforcer innately (?) reinforcing
  stimulus.i.e., satisfies a biological need
• Conditioned Reinforcer (a.k.a. secondary
  reinforcer)
• stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through
  its association with primary reinforcer
• Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous Reinforcement
• reinforcing the desired response each time it
  occurs
• Do 1, get 1
• Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
• reinforcing a response only part of the time
• results in slower acquisition (takes longer)
• Butgreater resistance to extinction (stays
  stronger!)

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Ratio (FR)
• reinforces a response only after a specified
  number of responses
• faster you respond the more rewards you get
• different ratios
• very high rate of responding
• EX piecework pay make 3 dresses, get 5 buy
  5 get 1 free
• Variable Ratio (VR)
• reinforces a response after an unpredictable
  number of responses
• average ratios
• EX gambling or . maybefishing (casts)?
  
• very hard to extinguish because of
  unpredictability we tend to keep on trying to
  get it again

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Interval (FI)
• reinforces a response only after a specified time
  has elapsed
• response occurs more frequently as the
  anticipated time for reward draws near
• EX paycheck
• Variable Interval (VI)
• reinforces a response at unpredictable time
  intervals
• produces slow steady responding
• EX pop quizor fishing (time sitting)?

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Skinners 4 Schedules of Reinforcement Each
black tic a reinforcer RATIO gets higher
responses than Interval. And VARIABLE
(unpredictable) higher than Fixed
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A Question Answered from AP Psy Listserv Is a
kids time-out negative reinforcement OR
negative punishment What do YOU think??

• Some students might consider "time out" a
  negative reinforcement technique, but traditional
  time out is not actually a negative reinforcement
  technique. Sitting a child in a chair in the
  corner for a period of time is really omission
  training--depriving that child of something he or
  she wants in order to teach them not to do the
  undesired behavior.
• Omission training is a form of punishment--not
  reinforcement.
• If getting out of time out were tied to a
  behavior, then it would qualify as negative
  reinforcement. EX if kids can get out of time
  out if they agree to comply with parental
  requests, then they would be negatively
  reinforced to be compliant.
• If time out were used as a negative reinforcement
  technique, then it would be a more powerful
  behavior modification technique. (See p.231)

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What does each pic have to do w/ operant
conditioning? Training Lions Training
Rats Training Men ?
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Learned Helplessness

• Learned helplessness was discovered accidentally
  by psychologists Martin Seligman and Steven F.
  Maier
• They initially observed helpless behavior in dogs
  classically
• conditioned to expect an electrical shock after
  hearing a tone.
• Later, the dogs were placed in a shuttlebox with
  2 chambers
• separated by a low barrier.
• Floor was electrified on one side, but not on the
  other.
• Dogs previously subjected to the classical
  conditioning made no
• attempts to escape, even though they could
  avoid shock simply by
• jumping over the low barrier.
• In People EX child who performs poorly on
  math tests
• assignments quickly begins to feel nothing he
  does will have an
• effect on his math performance.
• Later when faced with math-related tasks, he may
  experience a
• sense of helplessness.

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Learned Helplessness WHY even TRY???
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Cognition Operant Conditioning

• Intrinsic Motivation
• Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
• Comes from something inside of us driving us
• Extrinsic Motivation
• Desire to perform a behavior due to some possible
  rewards or punishments
• Comes from something outside (ex-) driving us

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• Biological Predispositions (p. 331) like
  Classical Conditioning, the ability to be trained
  a certain way has limits
• .Ya cant teach pigs to fly ?
• Hamsters Why is it easier to get it to dig or
  stand on hind legs than to wash its face even
  though it does all naturally?
• What are the biological predisposition of the
  following?
• Rats? Cats? Pigs?
• See Problem w/ pigs instinctive drift?

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• Skinners legacy
• Critics He dehumanized ppl by saying we could
  train them to behave however we wanted using
  reinforcements
• Also in Beyond Freedom Dignity -- he didnt
  accept concept of free-willour choices
• He completely rejected cognitive psychology as
  any form of sciencebelieved it was a newer form
  of Wilhelm Wundts (father of psych 1st psych
  lab ,1879 birthday of psy) ideas of
  introspection, which had been totally discounted
• 1) At school said using computers to teach lets
  each kid work at his own pace reinforces
  automatically (Good job! Go to the next
  problem! Try that one again...)
• 2) Techniques at work?
• 3) At home?

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Operant vs Classical Conditioning p.335
Note is Table 8.3 , not 8.2 KNOW this!
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Observational Learning

• aka Social Learning
• learning by observing others
• Modeling
• process of observing and imitating a specific
  behavior (Role models)
• Albert Bandura (t-337) (DMA 11 -Bobo doll)
• Pro-social Behavior
• positive, constructive, helpful behavior
• opposite of antisocial behavior

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Observational Learning

• Mirror Neurons
• Frontal lobe neurons that fire when we perform
  certain actions
• BUT these also fire when observing another
  performing the actions
• Monkey see, monkey do?
• May enable imitation, language learning, and
  empathy
• Remember the BoBo Doll ... DMA

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.An individual is likely to act in the same ways
that others act. Is seen. benefit for
sports training .watching experts perform.
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• MIRROR Neurons
• Babies will copy adults
• Alsoremember the video of one baby starting to
  cry
• then another
• another
• another until all crying?
• What were they showing?
• (E-word???)

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Over-justification Effect

• Effect of promising
• a reward for doing
• what we enjoy doing,
• such as volunteering or a hobby
• It then becomes an
• extrinsic reward
• (you now expect a
• reward), not the
• intrinsic reward
• (b/c I enjoy
• it/makes me feel good) interest, as motivation

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Cognition Operant Cond.

• Skinner resisted idea of cognitive learning ,
  (figuring out stuff, using past experience
  making new connectionsEX McGyver?)
• Cognitive Map E.C. Tolman cogn. learning
• mental representation of the layout of our
  environment (DMA velephants 10A video)
• Ex after rats exploring a maze, then seem to
  have developed a cognitive map (DMA 10B video)
• Latent Learning
• Learning occurs, but we dont realize it until
  there is incentive to demonstrate it
• (I just picked it up)

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Latent Learning cuts of errors
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Cognitive learning(aka Insight) Latent
learning

• Cognitive maps (E.C. Tolman)
• EX Using map figuring new route
• if obstacles block your usual way
• Eureka!/AHA! moments...
• McGyver learning Taking previous info thru
  trial/error, learning new behaviors that work
  better
• This is a newer aspectand it ties
• operant (previous learning) observational
  thinking
• b/c it requires previous learning in order to
  occur.

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• Which kind of Conditioning is this below?
• Explain your answer!
• Darken the room as much as possible if you have
  outside windows.  Divide into pairs.  Watch
  partner's pupils as you turn out the lights in
  the room. 
• Ask them whats expect to be seen.  MOST ppl
  likely to say , "Nothing, because it will be
  dark." 
• To condition pupils to expand before the lights
  go out
• Say "Ready
• Pause a few seconds, then shut off the lights. 
• After 7 or 8 repetitions, should see partner's
  pupils enlarge before the lights go out.