HIST 3051PART 2

1
HIST 3051-PART 2 HISTORY OF TURKISH
REPUBLIC   BAHÇESEHIR UNIVERSITY 2007 Prof. Dr.
Zafer Toprak First part available at
www.ata.boun.edu under faculty / Zafer Toprak

2
Establishment of the Turkish Republic 29 October
1923 Consolidation of power 1923-1927 Ankara
Capital of the Republic 1923 Growing tension
between Ankara Istanbul
3
Kemalists in minority Opponents (Islamists
liberals) To restore the Sultanate Assembly
dissolved 1 April 1923 Tightly controlled new
elections June 1923 The new chamber 11 August
1923 A new party Vangard of change The
inaugural congress of RPP 9 August 1923 Ankara
new capital
4
Adoption of a new Constitution 20 April
1924 Anayasa Teskilat-i Esasiye
Kanunu Incorporating the principles of the
Constitutional Act of 1921 Teskilat-i Esasiye
Kanunu Concentration of all three government
powers in the one-house National Assembly
Millet Meclisi Executive Legislative
Judiciary (Tevhid-i kuvva)
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(TBMM- Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) to be
elected by indirect vote The indirect two-tier
system of election (Iki dereceli seçim)
1923-up to 1946 1923 - 27 - 31 - 35 -
39 - 43  
6
Abolition of the Caliphate 1924 Members of
the Ottoman Dynasty left Turkey 17
November 1924 Progressive Republican Party (
Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Firkasi ) Republic
Premature decision
7
Radicals Inönü versus Moderates Hüseyin
Rauf Minority within RPP - 32
deputies Corruption possesions of Greek
migrants
8
Peoples Party Republican Peoples Party(Halk
Firkasi Cumhuriyet Halk Firkasi)Cumhuriyet
Halk Partisi 1935 Radical authoritarian -
Centralist Unity of powers (Tevhid-i kuvva)
National economic policy Revolutionary
changes The indirect two-tier system of election
9
Progressive Republican Party ( Terakkiperver
Cumhuriyet Firkasi ) Liberal Decentralization S
eparation of powers Liberal economic policy
Foreign loans capital Evolutionary
changes Direct elections by universal
suffrage Minimum state intervention
10
The Issue of Regime - Conservatives Caliphate
Spritual leader and president of the
assemby An Islamic constitutional regime Caliph
to ratify all legislation Legislation in line
with the Seriat the legal code of Islam
11
Revolutionaries The notion of an Islamic
state anathema / curse Islamic state to
maintain the status quo Modern national state
Secular rational Science Modern Education

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ORIENTATION TOWARDS SECULARISM - LAIKLIK
Three Revolutionary Laws -  3 March 1924 (Üç
Devrim Yasasi) 1 - Abolition of the Caliphate
(Hilafet) 2 - Replacement of Ministry of
Religious Law and Pious Foundation by The
Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet
Isleri) 3 - Unification of the educational
institutions ( Tevhid-i Tedrisat )
13
11 February 1924 Kurdish revolt headed by
Seyh Sait Elazig Purpose Establishment of
an independent Kurdish state Restoration the
Caliphate  
14
4 March 1925 Promulgation of the
Maintenance of Order Law ( Takrir-i Sükun Kanunu
) 2 years To ban any organization or
publication considered as the cause of
disturbance to law and order
15
Opposed by PRP too elastic Two independence
tribunals Eastern provinces Rest of the
country Deportation Compulsory settlement in the
West Kurdish identity officially
denied Constitutional identity replaced ethnic
identities
16
Extensive powers to deal with a) rebels,
b ) reactionaries c) subversive
elements. Martial law ( Siki yönetim ) To
suppress the Kurdish uprisings 8 newspapers and
periodicals closed down Leading journalists,
columnists from Istanbul arrested
17
The PRP closed down 3 June
1925 Accused of A - Giving support to the
rebellion B - Exploiting religion for political
purposes
18
Consolidation of power History repeats
itself 1908-1912 pluralistic relatively
free 1913-1918 power monopoly Radical program
of secularization and modernization Removal of
Seyhülislam from cabinet etc. 1920-1925 /
27 pluralistic 1925 1945 authoritarian regime A
program of reforms
19
Alternatives A - Democratic system with a
slower pace B - Autoritarian system with radical
reforms The dilamma Democracy versus
Republic Strengthening and survival of the State
20
Independence Tribunals - Revolutionary courts
( Istiklal Mahkemeleri ) established in 1920
reactivated Political opposition and its press
silenced
21
Discontent arising from a) unfavorable
economic situation b) unpopularity of the
reforms A plot to assasinate Mustafa Kemal June
1926 Led by Ziya Hursit Prominent Unionists and
PRP adherants arrested Accused of planning a
coup detat Kara Kemal, regarded as the brain
behind the attempt Death sentence - Shot
himself
22
1927 End of the troubled post-war
period Second Congress of the
RPP Retrospectively adopting Sivas as first
congress
23
36-hour Speech (Nutuk) A report on the
national movement from 1919 to 1927 Vindication /
justification of the purges (1925-1926) Criticism
of the former leaders of PRP Disregard the
earlier phase of the resistance Nutuk determined
historical vision of the genesis of New Turkish
State
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THREE BASIC FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE
TURKISH REPUBLIC 1927 NATIONALISM,
SECULARISM, LAICISM POPULISM  
25
NATIONALISM   Nationalism based on the
sovereignty of the nation ( Hakimiyet-i Milliye
Ulusal Egemenlik )  The task of building a
national state Ulusal Devlet   A culturally
homogeneous Turkey From Nation-State to National
State Nation-State Economic entity
  Strengthening a feeling of national
consciousness in the individual Türk ( Ulusal
bilinç )
26
POPULISM   Adaptation of Western ideas of
democracy to domestic needs   A mean of
securing social unity around the ideals of
nationalism  
27
A society to be composed not of classes but
of individuals assembled in occupational groups
(businessmen, government officials, farmers,
craftsmen) dependent of each other A
consentual society Economic interests of any
not conflicting with others  
28
  The Peoples Party ( Halk Firkasi ) (
Cumhuriyet Halk Firkasi 1924 ) the synthesis
of the people, the sole representative of all
these groups, uniting link among them.
29
The First Program of the Party
(1931)   Populism is the means of preserving
the unity of Turkish society by not yielding to
class struggle.   Rejection of
class-structure  
30
REFORMS   The ultimate purpose Modernity
Modernization of Turkish society by
supplanting its traditionalist, emotional ways
and customs with rationalist, modernist ideas
 
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CITIZEN - YURTTAS   New individual or citizen
(Yurttas) a) rationalist b)
anti-traditionalist c) anti-clerical
person
32
1924 Abolition of religious courts ( Seri
mahkemeler ) 1925 The shrines, sects,
convents and monasteries closed. ( türbe, tekke,
zaviye) Sartorial reforms Concerned with mens
clothes Religious vestments - clothes or
insignia by persons not holding religious office
forbidden Civil servants to wear the clothes
common to the civilized nations Western suit
and hat
33
1925 European calender (Gregorian)
adopted International solar calendar (miladî
takvim) replaced Islamic lunar one (hicrî
takvim) 24-Hour International Clock replacing
prayer timing (ezâni vakit)
34
Changes in symbols 1925 All men to wear
hat Wearing of fez Criminal offence The hat
(western style) replaced the fez (Mahmud II)
Hierarchical titles (Pasa) abolished Economic
/ Financial Reforms The religous / tithe tax
(asar) abolished Secular / indirect taxes
replaced them
35

• Legal Reforms
• The Civil Code of Switzerland
• Obligations Code (Borçlar Kanunu)
• Penal (Criminal) Code (Ceza Kanunu)
• Commercial Code (Ticaret Kanunu)
• Maritime Code (Deniz Ticaret Kanunu)
• Civil and Criminal Procedure (Usul Kanunlari)
• A new system of judicature / administration of
  justice

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The Civil Code of Switzerland replaced
the Mecelle based on Seriat, family
relations, including womens status on
Western foundation
37
Abolition of religious marriage, repudiation
bos ol ! polygamy Civil marriage
divorce Inheretance Equal rights for both
parties Marriage of a Muslim woman to a
non-Muslim man permitted Adults given legal
right to change religion No more penalty for
tenassur
38
A new Law School in Ankara (1925)
Revolutionary law challenging positivistic
Istanbul Law Faculty Visual Reforms
(Post-modern reforms) versus
- socio-economic reform partly due to political
concerns Land Reform ???
39
The first statues of Mustafa Kemal in 1926
unveiled in Istanbul at Sarayburnu . (Islam
oppressed reproduction of the human figure)
40
1928 Western numerals adopted, (Arabic
figures) Romanization  Latin alphabet
replaced Arabic script. National schools
(millet mektepleri) a campaign to teach new
Turkish letters to adults  
41
1928   Disestablishment of Islam 2. article
The religion of the Turkish state is Islam Islam
as an official religion struck from the
Constitution   Arabic and Persian deleted
from high school curricula replaced by Western
languages
42
Language Reform First phase 1910s Genç
Kalemler Ömer Seyfettin, Ziya Gökalp, etc Second
phase 1930s   The establishment of Turkish
Language Institute (Türk Dil Kurumu)   The
Sun-Language Theory (Günes Dil Teorisi) all
languages stemmed from Turkish
43
1930-1932 Conversion of Turkish Hearths (Türk
Ocaklari) into Peoples Houses (Halk Evleri)
and Peoples Rooms   1932 Turkish Historical
Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Revision of
Turkish history.  
44
1930 Women to vote in municipal
elections   1935 Women elected to the National
Assembly.   1934 Ecclesiastical garb forbidden
outside the mosques.   1935 Family name (Soyadi)
law replaced Arab nomenclature Weekly holiday
from Friday to Sunday
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Autoritarian modernism rather than
totalitarian tendencies Totalitarianism
requires media propoganda


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RPP a power monopoly An authoritarian
One-Party Regime Not a dictatorship or
totalitarian regime Free discussion Closed
meetings of the parliament Assembly votes not
a mere formality Parliaments create their own
opposition Four-yearly parliamentary elections
no ceremonial function Slates of candidates for
parliamentary seats


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Congress of 1931 Political system
officially One-Party State No independent
Kemalist ideology RPP led by the
secretary-general RPP dominated by member of
the TBMM Prime minister executive
chairman President Party chairman State
Party closely identified


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Congruency between state apparatus party
organisation 1936 Governor of province head
of RPP branch A tame opposition party
(1931) No legal opposition Underground
oppositon Insignificant communist
movement Kurdish nationalism Dersim (Tunceli)
1937-8 Kurds forcibly resettled in the west


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Widespread resentment - Authoritarian
behaviour of the RPP - Favouritism and
corruption - Lack of civil liberties - Reform
policies World economic crisis Turkey hardly
hit agricultural producer


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A loyal opposition party Channelling the social
discontent Shaking up lethargic RPP Fethi
(Okyar) offered to found a new party Free
Republican Party Serbest Cumhuriyet
Firkasi Faithful to the ideals of republicanism
ad secularism Liberal economic
policy Encouragement of foreign
investment Freedom of speech Direct elections
rather than two-tier elections


51
Widespread enthusiasm Ecstatic crowds RPP
leaders alarmed 1930 local elections FRP won in
30 of the 512 councils RPP alarmed Fethi Bey
accused RPP of large-scale irregularities
electoral fraud Fierce attacks on FRP accused
of high treason Fethi Bey closed down FRP 16
November 1930


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Direct control of cultural and intellecual
life One-Party State To combat the lethargy
30 in 1931 - 16 in 1935 reserved to
independents (müstakil)


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Turkish Hearts suppressed closed down
1931 Reactivated by Hamdullah Suphi (Tanriöver)
To spread nationalism, positivism and
secularism Lectures, courses
exhibitions Replaced by Peoples Homes in town
(500) Peoples Rooms in villages Same function
as Turkish Hearts but low (popular ) culture
rather than high (elite) culture


54
Womens People Party - Kadinlar Halk Firkasi
1923 Turkish Womens Union (Türk Kadinlar
Birligi) Found in 1924 Organized International
Womens Congress 1935 Anglo- Saxon -
Anti-militarism and peace movement Extraordinary
congress in May 1935 to disband Pretext - Its
aim (equal rights for women) achieved With the
granting of the vote


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The Turkish Freemasons lodges closed
down Liberal and socialistic newspaper and
periodicals already closed down in 1925 Tomorrow
(Yarin) Arif Oruç in 1931 A new press law to
close down papers contradicting the general
policies of the country


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University Reform - 1933 Darülfünun (House of
Sciences) University of Istanbul Purges
Two-thirds of the teaching staff, (100) lost
tenure Dependable followers kept on New
curricula German migrants professors initiated
modern sciences in Turkey Faculty of Language,
History Geography in Ankara 1936 Faculty of
Economics in Istanbul 1936


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Stifling political and intellectual
climate Kemalist elites Münevver
(Enlighteneds - Elite) Inspired teachers,
doctors, writers To guide ignorant
compatriots Active in Peoples Houses Prolific
cultural activities in Peoples Houses Theatre,
publications, folkloric dances, ethnographic
values


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Kemalism Never a coherent, all-embracing
ideology Flexible concept The basic
principles Republicanism Secularism Nationalism Po
pulism Statism Revolutionism


59
Six arrows Alti Ok First in the program of
the RRP then Incorporated into constitution
1937 The Age of Ideologies - State
ideology Indoctrination in schools, media and
army


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Tensions built up within leadership An open
row divergence of ideas between Atatürk and
Inönü Ismet Inönü replaced by Celal
Bayar Minister of economic affairs
1932 Atatürk passed away - 10
November Inönü elected president - 11 November


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Extraordinary Party Congress December
1938 The Party statutes changed Atatürk Eternal
Party Chairman Ebedi Sef Inönü Permenant
Party Chairman Millî Sef Official
title Difference of opinion Inönü Bayar Over
economic policies Reconciliation with old leaders
of independence movement Return from exile


62
Autoritarian regimes Salazar (Portugal) ,
Franco (Spain) Metaxas (Greece) Difference
Culturally and religiously conservative Cultural
revolution


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Claim Similarities between Italy
Turkey Extreme nationalism Legitimization of
historical mythology Racist rhetoric Authoritari
an character of the regime Efforts to establish
totalitarian monopoly for the party Personality
cult Emphasis on national unity and
solidarity Denial of class conflicts


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Differences Fascism Popular movement reaction
to Disruption of traditional society brought
about by industrialization Threat posed by
socialism to the middling strata Turkey Indiffere
nt population No attempt to mobilize population
No mass rally in the fascist style No militarist
rhetoric No expansionist irredentist
propaganda


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Kemalist regime Autoritarian
modernity Cautious, defensive and realistic
policies All-powered leader guiding political
principle Semblance / likeness of democratic
system Parliament and elections Invention of
citizen
66
Characteristic element - Secularist
drive Secularization of state, education
law Attack on the traditional stronghold of
institutionalized Islam Ulema Separation of
state and religion Control of the state over
religion
67
The Turkish Economic History The years of
deglobalization in the world The Country
economically in shambles / devastated in ruin in
1923 1923-29 A period of institutional change,
westernization reconstruction Modern
development policy with industrialization as its
backbone
68
The Great Depression 1929 Compounded
problems The policy after 1929 Clearing
agreements in foreign trade One of the first
examples among developing countries An
inward-looking, import-substitution
strategy Mixed economy with a large public
enterprise sector economic planning After World
War II The standard policy in decolonized
countries
69
This policy continued until 1980 A short period
of liberalization in the early 1950s Planning
became a constitutional requirement in 1961 The
inward-looking development policy The
inward-looking policy of import substitution
broke down in the late 1970s Radical turnaround
in development strategy Long overdue The
development strategy after 1980 Liberalization of
trade and export orientation
70
Turkey in 1923 An agrarian economy with
rudimentary modern industry Frontier economy
abundant resources of uncultivated
land Agricultural expansion Limited urban
working class in the early 1920s Frontier
conquered in the late 1950s Distribution of
uncultivated public land to private smallholders
71
Periodization Interwar years, 1923-38 The WWII
with following recovery 1939-1953 Democratic rule
agricultural growth 1951-1960 Inward-looking
planning, 1961-1977 Reform and export-oriented
growth 1980- The response to the Great
Depression 1929-1932 The liberalization years,
1950-1953 The stabilization efforts, 1959-1960,
1978-1979
72
Until the second half of the 1950s A frontier
economy abundant unciltivated land Extensive
(horizontal) expansion 1920s Industrialization
based on private entrepreneurship Support of the
emerging domestic industry The accumulation of
private capital in the industrial sector with
government intervention whenever
necessary Liberal ? Emphasis on public financing
with the active participation of private local
investors and capital contributions from foreign
investors
73
Initially emphasized sectors Natural areas of
IS Raw metarials could be obtained
domestically Sugar, textiles cement Constraints
1923 Lausanne Peace Treaty The tariff and tax
structure Frozen tariffs at the level of 1916
until 1929 Differential rates of excise taxes on
imported and locally produced commodities
prohibited No quantitative restrictions on
foreign trade Exception Government monopolies
for revenue purposes
74
Direct investment by foreigners
encouraged Particularly in partnership with
Turkish citizens 1/3 of the firms established
in the 1920s Joint ventures
75
Government subsidization of domestic private
enterprise Decree for the Encouragement of
Industry, 1913 Law for the Encouragement of
Industry, 1927 A wide variety of incentives and
subsidies Private investors profited from state
monopoly of alcohol, sugar, tobacco,
explosives, oil, matches, harbors etc. Partly
farmed out to private companies
76
Financial infrastructure In agriculture Agricult
ural Bank established in 1888 reorganized
1925 In business industry Business Bank (Is
Bankasi) 1924 State Industrial and Mining Bank
1925 Devlet Sanayi ve Maadin Bankasi Is Bankasi
Itibar-i Milli Bankasi merged in
1927 Sümerbank 1933 Etibank 1935 to meet the
shortages of capital for financing
industrialization and mining
77
First Turkish Economic Congress Izmir February
1923 Importance of economic independence 1100
delegates Farmers, traders, workers,
industrialistsfour groups occupational
represeptation Choice between liberalism and
state intervention Call for protection of local
industry No opposition to foreign
investment Disparate essentially different
resolutions Mixed economy State responsible for
major investments


78
1920s Semi-liberal in essence based on
private ownership and initiative State
interference Railways requiring large amount of
capital The backbone of economic
integration Ottoman tobacco monopoly bought out
State monopoly An important income for the
state budget End of capitulatory consession
Departure of Greeks and ArmeniansShortage of
manpower entrepreneurial skill Lausanne
Treaty import tariffs 1929 transionary period
of 5 years Limited protection for local
products


79
Lack of entrepreneurial know-how Lack of
prosperous market Law on the Encouragement of
Industry 1913 1927 Tax exemptions Agriculture
recoveredReplacement of tithe by sales
tax 1927-1928 hit by a long droughtdry weather
causing distress 1929 Great Depressionhit hard
Turkish economyterms of trade unfovorable for
Turkey


80
Financial Policies Conservative balanced
budget, low inflation DENK BÜTÇE SAGLAM PARA
Balanced budget Strong currency Tight monetary
policy - strong TL Still - trade deficit in
the 1920sdue to Lausanne Treaty


81
1929 A turning point for economic
development The beginning of the Great
Depression Tariff and tax autonomy The year of
abolition of the Capitulations in terms of
foreign trade The first installment of the
Ottoman debts To be paid between
1929-1953 Suspention of the payments at the end
of 1930
82
Exporter of primary commodities
agricultural Turkey sufferred from adverse
terms of trade development A sharp deterioration
in external terms of trade Imported goods
relatively more expensive than exported goods By
23 in 1925-1929 33 in 1929-1934 A
deterioration in internal terms of trade against
agriculture ITT fell by 23 in 1929-1934
83
Growth rates 1927-29 to 1937-39 6.3 Per
capita growth 4.2 The volume of exports
continued to rise in the 1930s Protection as an
infant-industry policy The new tariff an
average nominal protection of 46 from 1929
onwards as compared with the previous average
rate of 131916 tariff between 1924-1929
84
1929 Exceptional year for imports Huge
deficit in balance of payment An increase in
imports as the last of of liberal policy A
depreciation / devaluation of the TL Law for
the Protection of Turkish Currency
1930 authorizing the government to intervene in
the local exchange markets Türk Parasini Koruma
Kanunu To stabilize the international value of
the TL
85
Bileteral trade Agreements instead of Free
Trade Clearing Aggreements Germany to become
Turkeys largest trading partner Overvaluation
of TL Continuing problem until 1980 Asiri
degerli TL 1980 liberalization and reform
brought an end to the policies initiated in
1930. Legislation in June 1931 Import
restrictions
86
Quota lists - November 1931 Investment goods
raw material medical requirements Import of
agricultural and industrial machinery, raw
materials, medicine free Eliminated from the
list Consumer goods luxury etc. Imports of
processed food, alcoholic beverages, clothing,
shoes, leather goods, some other consumer items
87
Import licenses distributed administratively
created favoratism Created economic rents to
a limited number of favored importers and
producers Priority for imported goods to
prevent large trade deficit To maintain
surpluses on the trade account in order to
finance debt service Ottoman debts
88
Result Severe curtailment in the volume of
imports Declined by 60 in 1929-1933 Concern
for expanding the volume of imports without
experiencing trade deficits Bilateral trade,
clearing, and barter agreements during
mid-1930s A worldwide trend
89
Bilateral trade agreements with German, the
united Kingdom, France, Italy 84 of imports
81 of exports Became part of the clearing
and reciprocal quota systems in 1934-1939 The
exception the USA Turkey had a trade surplus
against the USA
90
Industrial output High rates of growth after
1929 Manufacturing industry averaged over 15 a
year Total industry including mining and
utilities exceeding 13 Despite the
contraction of rural demand arising from
curtailment of imports Import-substituting
industrialization
91
Subsidies in the 1920s Protection in the
1930s By the end of 1930 Private industry
primitive in character appropriating the rents
brought about by the restriction of imports and
protection of the domestic market A search for a
new strategy Radical reorientation of economic
policies Solution Etatism State to participate
in economic affairs
92
A response to the Great Depression A common
approach Latin American countries Mixed
economy government intervention balance of
payments controls Tendencies toward autarky
self sufficiency in economy in several European
countries The adoption of five-year planning in
the Soviet Union
93
Under etatism Foreign trade regime High
tariff rates Balance of payments
controls Quantity restrictions
94
Control of domestic markets Direct or
indirect price support policies (agricultural
commodities) Prices of some industrial goods
controlled Wages controlled in supported
industries Low wages Interest rates in
financial transactions and banking activities
fixed by central authorities No free interest
rates
95
The most conspicious feature of Etatism The
emergence of the state as a major producer
investor Most of the state monopolies,
administered by private firms, transferred to the
public sector Foreign-owned maritime transport
companies and railroad, nationalized and
transformed into state monopolies An important
role in large-scale investment projects A Key
factor in the development process State
economic enterprises (KIT)
96
Two Five-year industrial plans drawn
up Preparatory work in late 1932 with the help
of Soviet and American advisers The plan adopted
in 1934 A detailed list of the investment
projects for the public sector Financing party
obtained abroad (Soviet union and the United
Kimgdom The First Five-Year Plan attained by
1938 The Second Five-Year plan, started in 1938,
interrupted by the WWII
97
Agriculture emerged as the leading contributor
to growth under etatism Before etatism, public
investment concentrated on transport
communications (railways) With etatism, public
investment shifted toward industry, education
health, agriculture Even so, more than half of
public investment went into transport and
communications. Investment in transport
benefited agriculture Even in the last years of
interwar years 25 of public investment in
industry against 50 in agriculture and
railroads
98
World Economic crisis hit very hard Wheat price
declined by 2/3 Terms of trade deteriorated 100
1929 46 1934 No system of buffer
stocks to regulate prices Loss of purchasing
power Imposition of quatos and
restrictions Imports declined 256 m. TL 1929 85
m. TL 1932


99
Trade surplus 1930s Autarky A practical
necessity An autonomous industry 1929-1932 a
period of searching Statism State took
responsibility for creating and running
industries Lack of accumulated capital in private
sector Soviet delegation 1932 Concentration of
textiles, iron and steel, paper, cement, glass
and chemicals 1933 First Five-Year plan


100
Kadro Movement 1932-34 A cadre to act as a
vanguard of Kemalist revolution State planning in
all areas of social, economic cultural
life Third way a viable alternative to
communism and capitalism Inönü versus
Bayar Sümerbank 1933 Etibank 1935 State
Economic Enterprises State intervention in
agriculture 1932 To regulate prices by building
up and selling off stocks Office for Soil
Praducts 1938


101
End of Part 2