Social

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Social Personality Development in the Preschool
Years

• Chapter 8
• Development Across
• the Lifespan

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Self Concept in the School Years Forming a
Sense of Self

• During the preschool period, children wonder
  about the nature of self
• SELF-CONCEPT Identity, or their set of beliefs
  about what one is like as an individual.
• Youngsters typically overestimate their skills
  and knowledge
• They also begin to develop a view of self that
  reflects the way their particular culture
  considers the self.

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Psychosocial Development

• When you hear Psychosocial you should think
  ERIK ERIKSON
• Psychosocial psychological development in the
  context of others
• Already passed thru 2 stages by now (trust vs.
  mistrust autonomy vs. shame and doubt) and are
  entering the third
• Initiative vs. Guilt

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More about Eriksons theory

• INITIATIVE VS. GUILT STAGE (3 to 6 years)
• children experience conflict between independence
  of action and the sometimes negative results of
  that action
• Preschoolers with supportive parents
  independence
• Preschoolers with restrictive, overprotective
  parents guilt
• The foundational concept of this stage is that
  children become aware that they are people too!
  They begin to make decisions and shape the kind
  of person they are to become!

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Developing Racial Ethnic Awareness

• By 3 or 4 years, preschoolers can distinguish
  different races and begin to understand the
  significance of race in society.
• Some youngsters begin to show preferential
  feelings for members of their own race.

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Developing Racial Ethnic Awareness (continued)

• Race Dissonance A phenomenon in which minority
  children show preferences for majority values or
  people
• In some studies, as many as 90 of African
  American children reacted more negatively to
  drawings of black children than white children.
• WHY?
• Not because of lower self esteem
• The reason the influence of the dominant,
  predominantly white culture

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Gender Identity Developing Femaleness Maleness

• Gender, the sense of being male or female, is
  well established in young children. (Sex
  typically refers to sexual anatomy.)
• One way gender is manifested is in play.
• During the preschool years boys increasingly play
  with boys.
• Girls tend to play with girls.
• Gender out-weighs ethnic variables when it comes
  to play
• An Asian American boy would prefer to play with
  an African American boy than with an Asian
  American girl

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Gender Identity Contd

• Preschoolers also begin to develop expectations
  about appropriate behavior for girls and boys.
• Young children typically hold stronger
  gender-stereotypes than adults
• Expect males to be more independent, forceful and
  competitive and females to be warm, nurturing,
  expressive and submissive.
• Why does this happen? Centration?

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Several theoretical explanations for gender
related attitudes exist.

• Biological Perspectives
• physical characteristics Hormone differences and
  structure of the brain
• (inborn genetic factors ? gender differences)
• Psychoanalytic Perspective
• M Oedipus complex ? Castration Anxiety ?
  Identification
• F Attraction to father ? Penis Envy ?
  Identification
• Social Learning Perspective
• We learn from parents, teachers, peers, TV, etc.
• Cognitive Perspective next slide

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Theoretical explanations continued

• Cognitive approaches
• GENDER IDENTITY the perception of oneself as
  male or female.
• GENDER SCHEMA a cognitive framework that
  organizes information relevant to gender
• begin developing "rules for males and females
• Before 4 or 5, kids rely on outward appearances
  but then develop Gender Constancy
• Put a dress on a little boy and still know hes a
  boy

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Preschoolers' Social Lives

• ?The preschool years are marked by increased
  interactions with the world at large.
• Around age 3, children begin to develop real
  friendships.
• Peers come to be seen as individuals with special
  qualities.
• Relationships are based on companionship, play,
  and entertainment.
• Friendship is focused on the carrying out of
  shared activities (rather than just being in the
  same place at the same time!).

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With age, preschooler's view of friendship
evolves.

• Older preschoolers see friendship as a continuing
  state, and as a stable relationship that has
  meaning beyond the immediate moment.
• Older preschoolers pay more attention to concepts
  such as trust, support, and shared interests.
• Even by age 3, children are interested in
  maintaining smooth social relationships with
  their friends, trying to avoid disagreements.

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Play is Kids Job

• Promotes physical, cognitive and social growth
• 2 basic types
• Functional Play Simple repetitive activities
• Doing something rather than creating something
• Typical of younger kids (3-year-olds)
• Constructive Play Manipulating objects to
  produce or build something
• Can build actual things or situations
• Allows for physical and cognitive growth
• As play gets more complex it becomes more social
• Mildred Parten (1932) defined several styles play
  that focus on childrens social development

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Social Aspects of Play

• Parallel Play Play with similar toys in a
  similar manner but do not interact
• Onlooker Play Watch others play but do not join
  in themselves
• Associative Play Interact with each other a
  little share toys but do different things
• Cooperative Play Interactive, turn-taking play
  where kids work together to build something, play
  games, or have contests
• Sociodramatic Play cooperative play where kids
  interact taking on pretend situations and roles

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More about the effects of play on social and
personality development

• Associative and cooperative play generally do not
  emerge until the end of the preschool years.
• The nature of a child's play is influenced by
  their social experiences.
• Children with preschool experience engage in more
  social behaviors earlier (associative
  cooperative play, etc)
• Play becomes increasing unrealistic during the
  preschool period (pretend play increases)
• using a matchbox as a car instead of a metal toy
  car
• Vygotsky argues that pretend play (especially
  social) aids cognitive development and
  understanding of the culture

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Theory of Mind

• Remember that T.O.M. refers to kids explanations
  of how others think
• This become increasing complex throughout the
  preschool/early childhood period
• Kids can imagine something in their heads and
  know others can do the same
• Understand emotional reactions better
• Understand that physical appearances can be
  deceiving and people can be easily fooled
• Social interaction and play helps develop more
  complex theories of mind
• Having older siblings to play with also promotes
  this
• Cultural Differences

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Parenting Styles

• Diana Baumrind (know her)
• 4 Types of Parenting
• Authoritarian controlling, punitive, rigid. My
  way or highway, no disagreements allowed
• High Control, Low Warmth
• Authoritative Firm, clear, consistent, give
  explanations, open to discussion, open to
  criticism
• High Control, High Warmth
• Uninvolved/Neglectful no interest in kids,
  rejecting, bothered, cold, just dont care
• Low Control, Low Warmth
• Permissive poor limit setting and inconsistent
  feedback about behavior
• Low Control, High Warmth

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(Diana Baumrinds 4 major types of parenting or
patterns of discipline, continued)

• Children of authoritative parents tend to fare
  best they are independent, friendly with their
  peers, self-assertive, and cooperative parents
  are not always consistent in their parenting or
  discipline styles.

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Diana Baumrinds 4 major types of parenting or
patterns of discipline (continued)

• Children whose parents engage in aspects of the
  authoritative style tend to show supportive
  parenting
• Supportive parenting encompasses parental warmth,
  proactive teaching, calm discussion during
  disciplinary episodes, and interest and
  involvement in children's peer activities show
  better adjustment and are protected from the
  consequences of later adversity.

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(parenting patterns of discipline, continued)

• Childrearing practices that parents are urged to
  follow reflect cultural perspectives about the
  nature of children and the role of the parents.
• Childrearing practices in Eastern societies are
  more likely to involve strict control. Such
  control is seen as a measure of parents
  involvement in and concern for the welfare of
  their children.
• In Western societies, and especially in the
  United States, parents are more often advised to
  use authoritative methods.

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Child Abuse and Psychological Maltreatment

• Obviously child abuse, neglect and maltreatment
  seriously affect the social personality
  development of many preschoolers
• Five children are killed by their caretakers
  every day.
• 140,000 others are physically injured every year.
  
• Three million children are abused or neglected
  annually in the U. S.

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• Types of Child Abuse

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Child Abuse and Psychological Maltreatment
(continued)

• ? Child abuse can occur in any home, though it is
  most frequent in families living in stressful
  environment.
• Poverty
• Single-parent homes
• Families with high levels of marital discord

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There are many reasons for why child abuse occurs

• There is a vague demarcation between permissible
  and impermissible forms of physical punishment or
  violence.
• Factors related to the privacy of child care in
  Western societies present unrealistic
  expectations about children's abilities.
• The CYCLE-OF-VIOLENCE HYPOTHESIS argues that the
  abuse and neglect children suffer predisposes
  them as adults to be abusive.

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Child Abuse (continued)

• Abused Children
• Fussy
• Resistant to control
• Do not readily adapt to new situations
• More headaches and stomachaches
• More bedwetting
• More anxious
• Developmental delays
• 3-4 and 15-17 year-olds are most likely targets

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Child Abuse (continued)

• Not all abuse is physical
• PSYCHOLOGICAL MALTREATMENT is abuse that occurs
  when parents or other caregivers harm children's
  behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical
  functioning.
• Overt behaviors (frightening, humiliating
  children, threats of abandonment)
• Covert behaviors (neglect ignoring child,
  emotionally unresponsive, inattentive to needs)

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Child Abuse (continued)

• Obstacles stand in the way of identifying cases
  in the U.S
• Privacy issues
• levels of harm requirements
• The consequences of psychological maltreatment
• Some preschoolers suffer lasting damage
• Low self esteem lying
• misbehavior aggression
• Underachievement criminal behavior
• suicide

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Some children are resilient and grow into
psychologically healthy adults despite abuse and
maltreatment (sometimes with the help of
psychologists)

• RESILIENCE refers to the ability to overcome
  circumstances that place a child at high risk for
  psychological or physical damage.
• Resilient children are affectionate, easygoing,
  good communicators, intelligent.
• They are able to elicit positive responses from
  others.
• They tend to feel that they can shape their own
  fate and are not dependent on others or luck.

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Moral Development During the Preschool Years

• Changes in moral development are an important
  aspect of growth during the preschool years
• MORAL DEVELOPMENT refers to changes in people's
  sense of justice and of what is right and wrong,
  and in their behavior related to moral issues.
• Several theoretical approaches have evolved for
  explaining moral development in children.

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Piagets view of moral development

• HETERONOMOUS MORALITY (from 4 to 7 years old)
• is the initial stage of moral development in
  which rules are seen as invariant and
  unchangeable.
• Youngsters in this stage do not take intention
  into account.
• IMMANENT JUSTICE, the notion that broken rules
  earn immediate punishment

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(Piagets view of moral development, continued)

• The next stage, according to Piaget, is the
  incipient cooperation stage (from age 7 to 10).
• Here children become more social and learn the
  rules.
• They play according to a shared conception of the
  rules, but rules are still seen as largely
  unchangeable

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Piagets view of moral development (continued)

• During the autonomous cooperation stage
  (beginning at age 10) children become fully aware
  that game rules can be modified if the people who
  play them agree.
• Critics of Piaget's theory argue that he
  underestimated the age at which children's moral
  skills develop.
• Children can understand intentionality starting
  around age 3

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More theoretical approaches for explaining
moral development in children

• Social-learning approaches to morality focus on
  how the environment influences children's moral
  behavior.
• Prosocial behavior (helping behavior that
  benefits others
• In this view, moral conduct is learned through
  reinforcement and modeling.
• Preschoolers are more apt to model the behavior
  of warm, responsive adults and models viewed as
  highly competent or high in prestige.

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Social-learning approaches to morality (continued)

• Children do more than simply mimic modeled
  behavior.
• By observing others behavior, they begin to
  learn society's norms.
• This leads to ABSTRACT MODELING, the process of
  developing more general rules and principles that
  underlie behavior.

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Another approach to morality

• According to some developmentalists, EMPATHY -
  the understanding of what another individual
  feels - lies at the heart of some kinds of moral
  behavior.
• Empathy starts early (1 yr old infants cry if
  others do)
• During the preschool years, empathy continues to
  grow

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Another approach to moralityEmpathy Emotions
(continued)

• Positive emotions such as empathy, sympathy, and
  admiration lead children to behave in a moral
  fashion and thus contributes to social and
  personality development
• Also, the desire to avoid negative feelings leads
  them to act in moral helpful ways (Freud)

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Aggression and Violence in Preschool Children

• AGGRESSION
• Definition from book Intentional injury or harm
  to another person.
• If thats aggression, whats violence?
• To me, aggression is more of an impulse or
  feeling rather than an act
• Infants do not act aggressively, however, by the
  preschool years children demonstrate true
  aggression.

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Aggression and Violence in Preschool Children
(continued)

• The frequency and duration of aggressive acts
  declines throughout early childhood due to
  emotional self-regulation.
• Aggression is a relatively stable trait, the most
  aggressive preschoolers tend to be the most
  aggressive school aged children.

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Types of Aggression

• Instrumental Aggression
• Aggression motivated by desire to obtain a
  concrete goal such as playing with a certain toy
  that another child has
• Physical
• Relational aggression
• Non-physical aggression that is intended to hurt
  another persons feelings

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There are varying explanations for aggressive
behavior among children

• Freud claimed we all have a death drive
  (Thanatos), which leads us to act aggressively.
• Konrad Lorenz argues that humans, like all
  animals, share a fighting instinct.
• Sociobiologists, scientists who consider the
  biological roots of social behavior, argue that
  aggression facilitates the goal of strengthening
  the species and the gene pool in general.

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(explanations for aggressive behavior among
children, continued)

• Cognitive approaches argue that aggression stems,
  in part, from the manner in which children
  interpret other's actions and situations.
• Social-learning approaches contend that
  aggression is based on prior learning, and how
  social and environmental conditions and models
  teach individuals to be aggressive.

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One More

• Behavioral Explanations
• Not in your book
• Behaviorists are not so concerned with Why so
  much as What more practical
• REINFORCEMENT! Kids are taught at home and by
  peers that acting aggressively works!
• Thru acting in certain ways and getting
  reinforcement kids get implicit messages
• If I throw a fit, mom wont make me do my
  chores
• If I get mad, yell, hit, and kick, other kids
  become scared of me and therefore they want to
  have me on their side
• Shaping rewarding closer and closer
  approximations to the behavior ? kids learn how
  much aggression is enough to get what they want
  (reinforcement)