IMS3230 Information Systems Development Practices

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IMS3230 - Information Systems Development
Practices
Soft Systems Methodology (SSM)
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the systems approach

• general systems theory (e.g. Bertalanffy 1968)
• to understand the nature of large and complex
  systems
• a system is a set of interrelated elements, with
  inputs and outputs, and with a set of processes
  which convert inputs into outputs
• a system has a boundary and an environment with
  which it interacts
• a system has a purpose, and its elements interact
  to achieve this
• systems relate to each other, and consist of
  subsystems
• e.g. an inventory system

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the systems approach

• systems have emergent properties
• the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
• need to develop information systems for the
  organisation as a whole, not for isolated
  functions
• the interconnectedness of systems
• understand the context of information systems
• avoid the reductionism of scientific analysis
• decomposition of complex structures may distort
  our understanding as elements may react
  differently when examined individually

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the systems approach

• organisational (human activity) systems are not
  predictable
• peoples behaviour and interpretations
• organisations are open systems, interacting with
  their environment
• e.g. competitors, government policies,
  customers, suppliers
• organisations are complex systems
• need people with a range of expertise and
  experience to develop and implement information
  systems

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the systems approach

• the technological aspects are closed and
  predictable
• the human aspects are open and
  non- deterministic
• methodologies must take into account the
  importance and complexity of the human element
• computer solutions are not always
  appropriate
• multiple viewpoints and solutions which is
  best?
• may require technological and also attitudinal,
  structural, environmental changes

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hard vs soft systems thinking

• Checkland (1981)
• soft systems approaches
• organisations are complex, with problems which
  are fuzzy, ill-defined, not well-structured,
  and where multiple points of view exist
• hard systems approaches
• focus on the certain and precise in situations
  e.g. structured approaches, SSADM
• assume there is, and consider, only one point of
  view

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Soft Systems Methodology

• developed at Lancaster University from the early
  1970s by Peter Checkland as part of an action
  research program
• Checkland wanted to adapt the ideas of systems
  theory to form a practical methodology
• a study of methods for application in a
  particular situation
• not a development methodology a methodology to
  identify changes
• human problem and process oriented, not technique
  oriented
• a number of models built representing different
  viewpoints
• exploration of problem situations to decide on
  action for desirable changes

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hard systems thinking

• systems exist in the real world and can be
  engineered
• an objective, correct view exists
• decomposition of systems into parts for
  examination and understanding scientific method
• focus on how to do things, assumes what to do
  is already clear
• the system's objectives can be defined in
  advance
• alternative means of achieving them can be
  modelled
• the most desirable is selected
• deterministic, goal-seeking seek optimum
  choice from competing alternative solutions

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soft systems thinking

• systems do not exist as such, but are an abstract
  concept representing a way of seeing and
  understanding the real world a holon e.g. the
  education system
• the system is not some part of the real world
  but is the organised process of enquiry itself
• subjective, depending on background, experience,
  beliefs
• need to understand and explore the whole and its
  context
• SSM is a system of enquiry and has to be
  participative
• the role of the SSM expert is to help the
  people in the problem situation carry out their
  own study
• models are not representations of real world
  activity but are constructed in order to help
  debate it

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Soft Systems Methodology

• fuzzy, ill-structured, complex (i.e. soft)
  problems are common in organisations human
  activity systems
• the unpredictable nature of human activity
  systems
• data, processes are relatively easy to model,
  but
• to understand organisations, we need to include
  people in the models
• the people involved may have different and
  conflicting objectives, perceptions,
  and attitudes
• we need to address the soft aspects of
  problems, not just the hard aspects, to achieve
  a better understanding

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The development of SSM action research

• Action research
• to investigate and refine theoretical knowledge
  by active and reflective participation in a
  real-world situation not under the control of the
  researcher vs e.g. laboratory experiments
• client-centred, contextual
• goals negotiated with members of the organisation
• not fact-finding, but a learning process
• each social context is unique, no law-like
  generalisations about organisations vs the
  scientific method
• insights rather than cause / effect relationships

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Soft Systems Methodology

• humans attribute meaning to their experiences and
  observations
• we form intentions, based on how we interpret our
  situation, and
• take purposeful action in response to our
  experience of the world the experience / action
  cycle learning
• SSM the focus is on an organised set of
  principles (methodology) which guide action in
  trying to manage (in the broad sense)
  real-world problem situations
• Checkland and Scholes (1990), p. 5
• the what to do and the how to do it are both
  tackled
• (problem situation, not a problem)

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Soft Systems Methodology

• Checkland and Scholes (1990) p. 6
• the basic shape of the approach is to formulate
  some models which it is hoped will be relevant to
  the real-world situation, and use them by setting
  them against perceptions of the real world in a
  process of comparison. That comparison could then
  initiate debate leading to a decision to take
  purposeful action to improve the part of real
  life which is under scrutiny
• see Fig 1.3 p. 7

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Soft Systems Methodology

• Checkland and Scholes (1990), pp 286 - 287
• no automatic assumption the world is systemic
  conscious choice to take a part of the world as a
  system to be engineered
• distinguish between unreflecting involvement in
  the everyday world and conscious systems thinking
  about the real world the SSM user is conscious
  of moving from one world to another many times
• in systems thinking holons are constructed
  purposeful human activity systems embodying
  emergent properties, layered structure, processes
  of communication and control
• holons are used to enquire into the real world in
  order to articulate a debate or dialogue intended
  to define changes deemed desirable and feasible

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Soft Systems Methodology

• the situation is a product of a particular
  history
• the improvers are the users of SSM
• the focus is the search for one (or more) world
  view a set of assumptions about reality
• the world view is extracted from the problem
  situation through debate on the purpose of the
  organisation
• the world view forms the basis for describing
  system requirements
• implemented changes will change the nature of the
  problem situation as perceived continuous cycle
  of learning

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Evolution of SSM

• Two modes
• mode 1 Checkland (1981)
• 7 stage model, is the most well-known version
• mode 2 Checkland and Scholes (1990)
• developed from further action research
• two interacting streams of structured enquiry
  together lead to changes
• - logic-based stream holons
• - cultural analysis stream
• mode 2 is more a framework of ideas
• the version of mode 1 is seen as just one option

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Stages of SSM 1. the problem situation
unstructured

• (See Fig 24.1, p. 471 in Avison Fitzgerald
  (2003))
• explore the problem situation to understand the
  real causes
• problem owners those on whose behalf the study
  has been initiated
• actors those taking part in the situation, other
  stakeholders
• analysts attempt to reveal many possible views of
  the situation
• the structure of the problem situation physical
  layout, reporting structure, formal and informal
  communication patterns
• activities carried out
• climate relationships between structure and
  activities

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Stages of SSM 2. the problem situation
expressed

• express the problem situation more formally
• no particular way prescribed, but rich pictures
  are often used as a communication technique
• elements include
• clients, actors, tasks, the environment, problem
  areas, conflicts, concerns, controlling bodies,
  other stakeholders, relationships, issues
• exploration, discussion, communication to help
  move from thinking about the problem situation
  towards thinking about what can be done about it

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Rich pictures

• graphical representation of the organisation or
  work area
• self explanatory and easy to understand
• a subjective process there is no correct
  picture
• hard facts e.g. activities, departmental
  boundaries, physical and geographical layout,
  product types, resources,
• soft facts concerns, conflicts,
  socio-organisational roles, political issues,
  relationships, employee needs,
• rich pictures help
• - to identify what is really important in the
  situation
• - people understand their role in the
  organisation
• - to define aspects of the organisation to be
  addressed by the information system

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Primary tasks and issues

• Rich pictures also help to identify primary tasks
  and issues
• primary tasks
• tasks the organisation must perform as part of
  its purpose what is central to this
  organisation?
• the boundaries of primary task systems coincide
  with a real world manifestation
• e.g. a functional boundary as in a personnel
  system
• issues
• topics or matters of concern or conflict
• generally the boundaries of issue-based systems
  do not map on to real world boundaries
• e.g. a system to resolve disagreements about
  resource usage

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Stages of SSM 3. root definitions of relevant
systems

• the problem solver imagines and names relevant
  systems a way of looking at the problem
  situation which provides useful insights
• a system is a perceived, meaningful grouping of
  people, objects and activities
• e.g. problem theme conflicts between two
  departments
• a relevant system a systems that redefines
  departmental boundaries
• identify one or more relevant systems for each
  problem theme
• a subjective process, several relevant systems
  should be identified, both primary task systems
  and issue-based systems

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Root definitions

• a root definition is created for each relevant
  system
• relevant systems are a focus for debate and
  exploration
• root definition
• a concise, verbal definition expressing the
  nature of a purposeful activity system regarded
  as relevant to exploring the problem situation
• useful in exposing different views
• (see examples Avison and Fitzgerald 1995, pp
  120-122)
• expresses the core purpose of a purposeful
  activity system and is always a transformation
  of some input entity into a new form of entity
  (output)
• use the CATWOE checklist to ensure that six
  essential characteristics are included

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Root definitions

• the CATWOE checklist
• who is doing what for whom, to whom are they
  answerable, what assumptions are being made, and
  in what environment is it occurring?
• C ustomers victims or beneficiaries of T
• A ctors those who do T
• T ransformation the conversion of input to
  output
• W eltanschauung the assumptions, the world view
  which makes T meaningful in context
• O wner those who could stop T
• E nvironment elements outside the system which
  it takes as given

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Stages of SSM 4. building conceptual models

• develop a conceptual model for each root
  definition
• an informal diagram of something relevant to the
  situation
• not a model of the situation, but a diagram of
  the activities of what the system described by
  the root defintion will do
• conceptual models are used to structure enquiry
  into the problem situation, not for checking that
  the model matches the real world
• the process of building root definitions and
  conceptual models is an iterative process of
  debate and modification moving towards an agreed
  definition

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Conceptual models

• Checkland Scholes (1990)
• assemble and structure the minimum necessary
  activities to carry out T
• base this on logical contingency
• to convert raw materials into a finished
  product, you first need to obtain the raw
  materials
• identify the monitor and control activities and
  the operational activities
• structure similar activities in groups together
• use arrows to show logical contingency
• See Avison Fitzgerald (1995) pp 122-127 for
  some examples

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Stages of SSM 5. comparing conceptual models
with perceived reality

• this debate creates new perceptions of reality,
  suggests new relevant systems, and concentrates
  thought on possible changes
• use informal discussion, formal questioning,
  scenario writing based on operating the models,
  trying to model the real world using the
  conceptual model
• formal questioning supported by creation of a
  matrix comparing activities in the model with the
  activities in the real world
• the aim is to compare the models with the real
  world to find an accommodation between different
  interests in the situation which is seen to be an
  improvement of the initial problem situation
• not a solution in the hard systems thinking
  sense

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Stages of SSM stages 6 7

• 6. assessing feasible and desirable change
• analysis of changes proposed in Stage 5 to create
  proposals for those considered feasible and
  desirable
• may or may not involve the development of an
  information system
• 7. action to improve the situation
• recommend action to improve the situation
• no methods described for implementing
  solutions
• changes must be systemically desirable truly
  relevant to the situation
• and culturally feasible perceived as meaningful
  within the particular culture and its world view

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SSM mode 2

• Checkland and Scholes (1990)
• two streams of structured enquiry unfold through
  time interactively
• - logic-based stream
• - cultural analysis stream
• the stream of cultural enquiry
• - analysis of the intervention
• - social system analysis
• - political system analysis
• all three cultural analyses complement the
  logic-based stream

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SSM mode 2 cultural enquiry stream

• analysis of the intervention Analysis One
• intervention in in a problem situation is itself
  problematical
• useful to analyse roles in the study
• who has the role client why have they
  requested the intervention?
• who has the role would-be problem solver
  their perceptions, knowledge and readiness to
  make resources available
• who has the role problem owner

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SSM mode 2 cultural enquiry stream

• social system analysis Analysis Two
• uses a model of a social system as a continually
  changing interaction between three elements
• roles, norms, and values
• role a social position recognised as
  significant, e.g. team captain
• norm characterises a role, e.g. expected
  behaviours
• value used to judge performance of a role,
  e.g. beliefs about what is good and bad
  behaviour
• (the engineering company example)
• the account of the social system will never be
  complete or static

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SSM mode 2 cultural enquiry stream

• political system analysis Analysis Three
• politics a process by which differing interests
  reach accomodation
• what are the commodities through power is
  expressed in this situation?
• e.g. formal authority. personal charisma,
  intellectual authority, external reputation,
  access to information, membership of particular
  groups
• how are these commodities obtained, preserved and
  passed on?
• analysis three enriches cultural appreciation
  from analyses one and two
• tacit level (the real politics) vs explicit level
  of analysis

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SSM and information systems

• Checkland and Scholes (1990) suggest
• develop an information flow model
• define information categories and data structures
• design of an information system
• SSM could enrich the information requirements
  definition steps of other methodologies

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Soft Systems Methodology

• for fuzzy, ill-structured problem situations
• for problem exploration
• not prescriptive or technique-oriented
• action research oriented experience in use of
  SSM helps to refine the methodology
• used in different ways by different users in
  different circumstances
• is it just a front end?
• practicality? Is it too vague?
• is it just consensus seeking?

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SSM criticisms

• too subjective
• - all viewpoints are considered equally valid
• - ignores political and social structures
  conditioning peoples views
• - ignores power relationships that constrain
  peoples actions
• assumes improvement can occur just by changing
  peoples views without changing the social
  structures that shape our views
• ignores issues of conflict and coercion and the
  difficulties of avoiding superficial consensus

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SSM criticisms

• exploration of world views should be an ongoing
  process, posing difficulties in practical
  situations of moving from abstract debate to
  pragmatic problem solving
• e.g. Flood and Jackson (1991) p. 189
• argue that SSM resolves this difficulty by
  merely leaving closure of the debate to the
  prevailing power structures as reflected in the
  dominant culture of the organisation
• Flood, R.L. and Jackson, M.C. (1991) Creative
  Problem Solving Total Systems Intervention.
  Wiley, Chichester

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References

• Prescribed text
• Avison, D.E. Fitzgerald, G. (2003).
  Information Systems Development Methodologies,
  Techniques and Tools. (3rd ed), McGraw-Hill,
  London.
• Chapters 4.1, 10.1-10.3, 24.1
• Checkland, P.B. and Scholes, J. (1990). Soft
  Systems Methodology in Action. Wiley, Chichester.
• Refer to additional references in the readings
  at the unit web page and in the prescribed text