Americas and Eastern Civilizations

1
Americas and Eastern Civilizations
2
How do gender relations develop in early Chinese
civilization?

• In addition to the political and philosophical
  changes of the Warring States Period, there were
  also changes in the family and in gender
  relationships. In place of the clan-based
  kinship structures of the earlier period, the
  three-generation family became the fundamental
  social unit.
• Little is known about the roles of women before
  the Warring States Period, although it is
  believed that women played public roles as
  shaman.
• However, by the time that Confucianism became
  codified, the patriarchal family was solidly in
  place. Confucianism established the importance of
  hierarchy, and in the family, the dominance of
  men over women. Fathers held the supreme
  authority over the family, arranged marriages,
  and were free to sell the labor of family
  members. Men were permitted to have concubines,
  but only one wife. The most important duty of the
  wife was to bear male offspring to continue the
  family and honor the ancestors.
• The concept of yin and yang represents the
  balance of the natural order. All things in the
  cosmos are in balance, much in the same way that
  men and women play complementary roles in the
  natural order. The male is the yin principle of
  active, bright, and shining. The female is the
  yang principal of passive, shaded, and
  reflective. The male is the sun, and the female
  is the moon, equal parts that combined make up
  the whole day.

3
How does geography contribute to the development
of civilization in the Americas?

• For at least fifteen thousand years, people of
  the Americas lived in isolation from the rest of
  the world. This isolation distinguishes American
  development from the worlds other major cultural
  regions.
• They had to face the challenges of their
  environment.
• It has been suggested that the peoples of the
  Americas had fewer potential domesticates to work
  with than the peoples of the eastern hemisphere,
  and that the potential north-south orientation of
  the Americas made it more difficult for
  domesticates and technologies to travel.
• In the Mesoamerican and Andean regions there was
  domestication of plants and animals, the
  development of trade, and the development of
  technology, which led to the rise of social and
  political complexity.
• In Mesoamerica, corn, beans, and squash were
  domesticated, leading to dependable agricultural
  surpluses and resulting in craft specialization
  and social stratification.
• Another development was the mining of important
  minerals such as obsidian, jade, and quartz.
• In the Andean region the environment was a
  diverse combination of mountain, arid coastal
  plains, and dense interior jungles.
• In the Andes unique artistic and craft
  specializations developed.
• The domestication of the llama (the only beast of
  burden in the hemisphere) was important to the
  transportation of goods from one part of the
  region to another and also stimulated production.
  
• The domestication of maize, quinoa, potatoes, the
  coca, and fruits, in addition to the abundance of
  fish and mollusks on the coast, provided a
  dependable food supply.
• This diverse and reliable food supply laid the
  foundation for urban life and an integrated
  economy.

4
What is divination?

• Many peoples in antiquity believed that the gods
  controlled the forces of nature and shaped
  destinies.
• One way of communicating with the gods was to
  practice divination, thereby interpreting natural
  phenomena as signs of the gods will. In China,
  the shaman would read oracle bones, often a
  tortoise shell or shoulder bone of an animal.
• They would heat the bone or shell and when it
  cracked they would read the message from the
  spirit world. In Mesopotamia one common form of
  divination involved the inspection of organs of
  sacrificed animals.
• Other types of divination involved following the
  trail of smoke from burning incense or examining
  the patterns of oil when thrown on water.
• These ancient diviners asked questions, predicted
  the future, and observed the astronomical
  constellations.
• Remnants of this system of prediction and destiny
  remain in modern astrological practices, such as
  the daily horoscope.

5
How does the concept of Mandate of Heaven
influence the future secular nature of Chinese
politics?

• The Zhou defeated the Shang around 1100 B.C.E.
  and built their empire on Shang cultural
  foundations. In order to legitimize and
  strengthen their claims to the Shang domain, Zhou
  kings devised a religious system where the chief
  god was referred to as Heaven, the king was the
  Son of Heaven, and the kings rule was a
  product of the Mandate of Heavenheavens
  ultimate authority to choose the king.
• The Mandate of Heaven proclaimed that kings would
  have the backing of the gods, but only as long as
  they were wise and principled guardians of the
  people. Incompetent or otherwise unfit rulersas
  the Shang had supposedly beenwould have the
  Mandate withdrawn and be replaced.
• Compared with that of the Shang, Zhou religion
  was more accessible to those outside the ruling
  elite.
• The result was a separation of religion from
  politics, which allowed the development of
  important largely secular philosophies during the
  Zhou period.
• The most prominent of those philosophies was
  based on the ideas of Confucius.

6
Why do you think that Confucianism and Daoism
developed during an Era of the Warring states?

• Confucius developed a doctrine of duty and public
  service that became the most influential
  philosophy in China. Confucius combined ancestor
  worship and the assumption that hierarchy is the
  natural order of the universe. He emphasized that
  everyone in society had a role to play with
  prescribed rules of conduct and ceremonial
  behavior in order to achieve societal harmony. He
  believed that, like a moral family, the
  government should be based on ren, or
  benevolence. His teachings emphasized
  benevolence, justice, loyalty, and dignity.
• The Daoist took a very different approach to
  social harmony. The Daoist believed in passivity
  and taking minimal action. The Daoist understood
  that the world lacks any real meaning or absolute
  morality so all that really matters is the
  individuals understanding of, and efforts to
  live in accordance with, the path of nature.
• Both provide structure for order and emphasize
  compassion and a direction for ethical behavior
  that may have been more desired in an era of
  disorder and destruction.

7
How does Nubia connect east with west?

• Nubia, the 1,000-mile stretch of the Nile between
  Aswan and Khartoum, was a corridor for trade
  connecting sub-Saharan Africa with Egypt.
• It was both a conduit for luxury items like
  myrrh, ivory, and ebony, and a rich source of raw
  materials such as copper and gold.
• The exchange of ideas, culture, and technology
  was particularly significant during the periods
  when Egypt administered Nubia directly.
• Egyptian control waned after the eleventh century
  B.C.E., and the powerful native kingdoms centered
  in Napata and Meroë emerged.
• Meroitic culture was marked by stronger
  sub-Saharan influences.
• Meroë continued to be a crossroads for trade, as
  well as an important iron-smelting center.
• After the profitable Roman Empire trade was
  diverted to the Red Sea area, Meroës
  civilization collapsed in the early fourth
  century C.E.