Research in the Social Sciences

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Research in the Social Sciences

• Fanie Cloete

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Presentation Outline

• 1 Purpose of research
• 2 Problem formulation
• 3 Data gathering
• Data processing
• Presentation of results The research report
• 6 Research ethics and codes of behaviour
• 7 Reading list for further information

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1 Purpose of research

• 1.1The scientific description, explanation and
  prediction of social phenomena
• 1.2The scientific method attempts to improve the
  reliability, validity, universality and
  accessibility of research results, by using as
  far as possible standardized procedures

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2 Problem Formulation

• 2.1 Interpret research mandate stick to it
• 2.2 Select the research theme or topic
• 2.3 Conceptualize and formulate clearly and
  concisely the problem to be researched and the
  research question to be answered
• 2.4 Formulate clearly and concisely the
  normative/value premises underlying the study
• 2.5 Conceptualize and formulate clearly tentative
  assumptions about the expectations of what the
  results of the research will be

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3 Data Gathering

• 3.1 Documentary research
• 3.2 Observation
• 3.3 Interviewing
• 3.4 Surveys
• 3.5 Simulation / experimentation

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3.1 Documentary Research (1)

• Information Collections
• Physical resource centres
• academic,
• research,
• public,
• private,
• government controlled
• Interlibrary loans at cost
• Virtual resource centres

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3.1 Documentary research (2)

• Where to start ?
• Electronic catalogues and databases
• reference librarians
• encyclopaedias
• dictionaries
• bibliographies
• journal shelves
• book shelves
• footnotes and source references in prescribed
  literature

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3.1 Documentary research (3)

• What information do you need ?
• theoretical perspectives
• cues about structure of report
• facts / descriptions
• explanations
• predictions
• statistics/aggregate data
• Analysis assessment techniques
• conclusions / evaluations
• first read summary of conclusions to determine
  relevance

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3.1 Documentary research (4)

• Authority of sources
• recent vs old
• primary vs secondary
• Academic vs popular sources
• Acknowledged established mainstream vs
  peripheral marginal sources
• Positive (supportive) vs negative (critical
  views)

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3.2. Observation (1)

• Nature purpose
• direct information collection through the
  senses
• purpose get facts, values, opinions, attitudes,
  feelings, emotions, motives, reasons, intensity,
  conduct, behaviour
• Impartiality, thorough preparation, accuracy and
  detail crucial for success

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3.2 Observation types (2)

• objective versus participative /subjective
  observation
• passive, interactive and active observation
  (action research)
• open vs covert observation (risks)
• controlled vs uncontrolled observation
  (structured vs unstructured observation)
• comprehensive notes as soon as possible

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3.2 Observation (3)

• Tape-recordingadvantages and disadvantages
• problems inter-subjective transfer of
  knowledge,culture commitments, language, etc
• Bias ethics
• supplement with other data collection techniques

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3.3 Interviews (1)

• medium personally, telephone, post, combination
• format open, guided, structured (half or fully),
  combination
• agent researcher him/ herself, assistants,
  professionals, combination

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3.3 Interviews (2)

• Purpose facts, values, attitudes, etc.
• support notes, tape-recorders questionnaires,
  combination.
• importance of thorough preparation,checking
  questions, training interviewers
• Complexities leading questions, suspicious
  respondents, sensitive questions, frankness,
  circumvention

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3.4 Surveys (1)

• types census, and random sample of universe
  once only, panel repetitive
• purpose attitudes, motivations, etc.
• sample characteristics representative, random,
  stratified

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3.4 Surveys (2)

• size sufficient to be representative of universe
• questionnaires difficult and expensive technique
• Once-off static picture
• Computing software capacity has potential of
  transforming surveys into iterative, dynamic tool

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3.4 Surveys (3)

• Well calculated questions (concise,clear,
  simple,etc.)
• anonymity
• minimum of writing
• pilot study
• types of questions
• structured
• yes / no, good / bad
• multiple choices
• scaling , priorities
• checking questions

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3.5 Simulation/Experimentation

• Types mathematical, computer, physical
• Applications military strategy, bargaining,
  voting behavior, development results
• Reduce research time, simplify process,
  repetition, preparation, test/ manipulate
  alternatives, control environment and variables

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4 Data processing

• 4.1 Purpose
• 4.2 Techniques
• 4.3 Results

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4.1 Purpose (1)

• Systemize/ classify/arrange/typify
• Search for similarities and differences among
  characteristics and variables
• Search for causal connections between causes and
  consequences

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4.1 Purpose (2)

• to answer research question
• To prove hypothesis true or false
• Comparison and testing (case studies)
• Deductive vs inductive approaches
• Theory and practice

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4.1 Requirements

• Reliability
• Validity
• Generality
• Accessibility
• Scientific Rigour

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4.2 Techniques (1)

• Qualititative analysis
• logic and rational thought
• Quantitave analysis
• statistics
• numbers
• percentages

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4.2 Techniques (2)

• Tables
• counting and measuringscales, statistical
  methods
• computer as a aid labour saving aid
• cost effectiveness
• statistical analysis software

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4.3 Results

• Factual description of findings
• Explanation and assessment of findings
• Prediction allegation that a specific event will
  occur or not occur in the future, usually based
  on a fixed pattern of relevance amongst
  phenomena.
• Model building or adaptation
• Theory formulation or changing.
• Paradigm

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5 Presentation of results (1) Report requirements

• Systematic
• Logical and well integrated
• Not fragmented
• Scientifically justified
• Objectivity/neutrality
• Keep facts and values separate
• Comprehensive references in text
• Thorough proof-reading
• Golden thread

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5 Presentation of results (2) Structure of report

• 5.1 Title page
• 5.2 Contents page
• 5.3 Introduction
• 5.4 Theoretical knowledge
• 5.5 Empirical description
• 5.6 Comparison/analysis/
• 5.7 Assessment / evaluation
• 5.8 Conclusions recommendations
• 5.9 Appendices
• 5.10 Bibliography

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5.1 Title page

• Title
• Name of Student
• Student number
• Course
• Lecturer
• Submission date

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5.2 Contents page

• Section headings
• Appendices
• Tables figures
• Page numbers

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5.3 Introduction

• Background summary
• Problem identification formulation
• Research motivation / contribution relevance
• Research objectives
• Research question(-s)
• Hypotheses
• Research methodology
• Structure of the report

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5.4 Theoretical knowledge

• Literature survey
• Summary of current state of knowledge
• Approaches, theories models
• Current factual knowledge insight
• Gaps in current body of knowledge
• Focused on research topic

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5.5 Empirical description of findings

• Summary of one or more cases relevant for
  research topic
• Comparison of cases
• Select qualitative quantitative data relevant
  for research topic
• Use appropriate research methodology

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5.6 Comparison / Analysis

• Comparison analysis of
• characteristics
• similarities
• differences
• advantages
• disadvantages
• strong points
• weak points

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5.7 Assessment / Evaluation

• Explanations of empirical findings against
  background of research question, hypothesis and
  theoretical summary to establish the golden
  thread
• Predictions where relevant appropriate
• Own opinion crucial

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5.8 Conclusions recommendations

• Summary of lessons learnt from contribution
  made with research exercise
• Research question answered ?
• Hypothesis verified / falsified
• New facts established ?
• New insights gained ?
• New explanations uncovered ?
• Existing models / theories changed ?
• New models / theories developed ?
• Recommended future research or steps to be taken ?

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5.9 Appendices

• maps
• tables
• graphs
• diagrams
• schedules
• annexures

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5.10 Bibliography

• All sources referred to in text
• One single alphabetical list by author date
• Include books, reports, articles, newspapers,
  legislation, interviews, internet sources,
  e-mail, etc
• Full bibliographical reference needed surname,
  initials/name, date of publication, publisher
  city.

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6. Research ethics and codes of behaviour

• 6.1 Ethics objectives
• 6.2 Scientific objectivity
• 6.3 Contract research
• 6.4 Interaction with research and policy
  environment.

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6.1 Ethics objectives

• Protect profession/ science from misuse.
• Protect researcher against unfair criticism.
• Protect the autonomy, privacy and dignity of
  respondents.
• Assure community who support the research about
  the quality of the work.

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6.2 Scientific objectivity

• Aim at optimal scientific standards and integrity
  in research.
• Make known value preferences as well as
  information about research design, procedures and
  methods
• Report all findings positive negative

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6.3 Contract research

• Reveal all sources of support and special
  relations with client
• Make no commitments that cannot be honoured
• Refuse to make results known if it will violate
  commitments
• Refuse research that does not meet requirements
• Complete projects within reasonable time
• Ask a moderate price for professional services

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6.4 Interaction with research and policy
environment

• Get permission of respondents where necessary
• Do not abuse position as subject specialist to
  collect information
• Draw up explicit agreements
• Mention contributions of all the co-workers.
• Sequences of names reflect extent of
  contributions
• Do not abuse research for social or policy
  purposes or permit the misuse of it

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7 Additional reading list (1)

• Bless, C. HigsonSmith, C. 1995. Fundamentals
  of Social Research Methods. An African
  Perspective. Second Edition. Cape Town Juta.
• Babbie, E. Mouton, J. (2001). The Practice of
  Social Research-South African Edition. Cape Town
  Oxford University Press.
• Breynard, P.A. Hanekom, S.X., 1997,
  Introduction to research in Public Administration
  and related academic disciplines. Pretoria JL
  van Schaik.
• Du Toit, P. et al. 1995. Practical Guide to
  Reading, Thinking and Writing Skills. Halfway
  House Southern Books.
• Garbers, J.K. (red.). 1996. Doeltreffende
  Geesteswetenskaplike Navorsing
  Navorsingsbestuur vir Navorsers, Studieleiers en
  M- en D-kandidate. Pretoria JL van Schaik.

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7 Additional reading list (2)

• Huysamen, G.K. 1993. Metodologie vir die Sosiale
  en Gedragwetenskappe. Halfway House Southern
  Books.
• Mouton, J. 1996. Understanding Social Research.
  Pretoria JL van Schaik.
• Mouton, Johann 2001 How to succeed in your
  Masters Doctoral Studies, Van Schaik,
  Pretoria.
• Smit, G.J. 1995. Research Guidelines for Planning
  and Documentation. Halfway House Southern Books.
• Terre Blanche, M Durrheim, K. (eds.). 1999.
  Research in Practice Applied Methods for the
  Social Sciences. Cape Town UCT Press.
• Welman, JC. 7 Kruger, SJ. (2001). Research
  Methodology for the Business and Administrative
  Sciences, 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press
  Cape Town.