Language Policy and Nation Building

1
Language Policy and Nation Building

• A comparative case study of Bangladesh and Nepal

2
Language Politics in South Asia

• South Asia as an area of high linguistic
  diversity
• Shift from dominant languages as those of the
  elite (e.g. Persian, English, Urdu) to mass
  access and the vernacular
• Massive increase in education and literacy s
• Continued inequality in terms of access to
  languages of power (e.g. access to resources and
  entitlements).

3
Bangladesh Language Movement

• Religion as the key aspect of identity invoked in
  post 47 Pakistan
• Urdu as language of governance (a minority elite
  language in E and W Pakistan)
• Tensions emerged in E.Pakistan that can be
  explained in terms of a) distribution of power,
  b) lack of acceptance of Urdu as the language of
  power.

4

• Let me make it clear to you that the State
  language of Pakistan is going to be Urdu and no
  other language. Anyone who tries to mislead you
  is really the enemy of Pakistan. Without one
  State language, no nation can remain tied solidly
  together and function (Jinnah 1948, in Dhaka).

5
Bangladesh National Identity
Nationalist development in Bangladesh over the
past half century is a fascinating case of
remarkable identity change. The Pakistan movement
in the 1940s, the emergence of Bangladesh within
less than a quarter of a century of the
achievement of Pakistan, and finally the search
for a new identity in post-1971 Bangladesh - all
these facts point at the volatility of
nationalism in Bangladesh (M.H. Kabir 1987).
6

• The ruling authorities of Pakistan felt that
  the Bengali language would ultimately impair the
  national cohesion of Pakistan. Bengali language
  is very different from the languages used in West
  Pakistan and it is identical with the language of
  West Bengal in India. Thus it was feared that the
  encouragement of Bengali might ultimately lead to
  the East wing of Pakistan to develop greater
  links with West Bengal than with Pakistan. The
  upholders of the Islamic ideology further argued
  that Bengali was primarily a language of the
  Hindus, and the Bengali literature was full of
  Hindu ideas and ideals. Hence the condemned
  Bengali as un-Islamic. (from Renaissance and
  Freedom Movement in Bangladesh by Bhattarcharjee
  1973)

7
Changing basis of E.Pakistan, Bengali and
Bangladeshi Identity

• Bengali Language movement from 1948-1952. -
  symbolically significant killing February 1952 of
  demonstrators protesting for the use of Bangla in
  government
• Language Martyrs Day (21 Feb) as part of the
  symbolism of the new State. 1956 Adoption of
  Bangla and Urdu as State languages of Pakistan
• Bengali language as on of the key aspects of
  Awami League political agenda.

8
Promotion of Nepali Monolingual Nationalism
If the younger generation is taught to use
Nepali as the basic language, then other
languages will gradually disappear, the greater
the national strength and unity will result
(National Education Planning Commission 1956)
9
Nepal - Contested Monolingual Nationalism in a
Multilingual State

• Nepal as a linguistically diverse country (120
  languages)
• Recognition of languages as a contested area of
  State politics
• Promotion of Nepali as the language of the State
  and of development from the 1950s onward

10
Language Policy and Conflict

• Nepali as the elite language (especially in
  education and institutions of government) -
  leading to social inequality over access to
  resources and entitlements
• Post 1990 (democracy) adoption of multilingualism
  in the constitution - but resisted in practice by
  the high court
• Language demonstrations in the 1990s (leading to
  acceptance of right to MT education, and change
  in broadcasting)

11
Language Policy, Social Exclusion and Conflict

• Limitations of monolingual ideology and practice
  (a European model?)
• Adoption of monolingualism by dominant groups and
  those trying to resist (e.g. irony of both
  Bengali language movement and Janajati movement
  in Nepal)
• Language policy cited in both cases as fuelling
  social inequality and conflict
• Alternative multilingual approach now being
  promoted