ITALY

1
ITALY

• 1919 - 1939

2
Italy Before 1919

• A brief overview of the situation in Italy before
  1919
• As we have studied, Italy had reached unification
  in 1870 and was a constitutional monarchy
• Democracy failed to flourish in Italy because of
  corruption on the part of the politicians----elect
  ions were controlled through bribery, and
  politicians were concerned with personal
  advancement rather than solving the problems of
  the country
• Thus, Italy remained a poor country, with slow
  progress in the industrial sector, and the land
  also lacked resources and fertile land
• Because of this millions of Italians were forced
  to emigrate abroad
• A major problem in the country was its weak
  foreign policy
• The Italians also tried to raise their
  international prestige by obtaining colonies, but
  they met with defeat in her quest to conquer
  Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) in 1896
• Due to the inability of the parliamentary
  government to set up a successful domestic and
  foreign policies, the government was looked down
  upon by the Italians because it was full of
  corruption and was inefficient, the people did
  not respect or trust their government

3
Situation of Italy after World War I

• The new problems that were introduced after the
  World War included
• The dissatisfaction of the Italians after the
  Paris Peace Talks---According to the London
  Treaty, the Italians were to receive Trentino,
  Trieste, Southern Tyrol, Istria, Dalmatia, the
  coastal districts of Albania, a share in the
  division of the Ottoman Empire and of the German
  colonies in Africa, however, Italy only received
  Trentino, Trieste, Tyrol and Istria, but she did
  not get any former German colonies nor any land
  in Asia Minor, Albania and Dalmatia. Because of
  this, the Italians held great dissatisfaction and
  resentment for the their governments weak
  foreign policy. Italian soldiers, as a result,
  were also resented when they returned to Italy.

http//www.serbianunity.net/culture/history/Treaty
_of_London/index.html
4
More Problems

• At this time, Italy was also facing general
  economic distress
• Even before the war, Italy was a poor nation, and
  in order for Italy to go to war, the government
  had to borrow money from other countries
• Italy had a huge foreign debt over her head in
  order for Italy to pay off her debt, Italy was
  hoping that the tourist industry and export trade
  would help generate profit for the country
• However, all of Europe was under economic
  difficulties, and the tourist and export
  industries declined, accompanied with large scale
  unemployment in the country
• The unemployment problem was compounded by the
  return of millions of soldiers seeking jobs
• Furthermore, a new law, restricting the entrance
  of immigrants into the country, had been passed
  in the United States, so Italys population was
  mainly unemployed
• The inflation of the lira, also added to economic
  hardships in Italy the lira had diminished to
  only one-fifth of its pre-war value
• Peasants and unemployed workers went on riots and
  began striking throughout the country, after
  being encouraged by the Bolshevik Revolution

5
Political Developments in Italy

• All the problems facing Italy mentioned before,
  caused Italians to lose faith in the liberal
  regime of the time
• As faith in the liberal government began to
  recede, Italians began to throw their support
  behind the Socialist Party and the Catholic
  Popular Party
• In the 1919 elections, the Socialist party won
  more than a third of the votes, becoming the
  largest party in the Chamber of Deputies, while
  the ruling parties, the Liberals and Democrats
  met with crushing defeat
• After the Socialist win, they began to carry out
  more strikes
• The largest strike was held in September of 1920,
  when the General Confederation of Labour called
  for a general strike, where workers took over
  more than six hundred factories and established
  soviets much like the Russian model---through
  this the Socialists also managed to hold power
  over a number of northern towns
• However, the Socialists failed to gain complete
  power in Italy
• By 1921, the Socialist threat had waned
• The Socialist Party could not remain as one
  party, and so split up into several parties,
  including the Communist Party
• This rise of socialist power was dubbed The Red
  Menace in Italy
• The threat of a socialist revolution brought fear
  to the industrialists, landlords and other
  property holders

6
Political Developments

• To add to all the previous problems Italy was
  facing, Italians also feared a socialist
  revolution
• The instability of Italy was a ripe situation for
  the birth of Italian Fascism
• The Fascist Party, established by Benito
  Mussolini in 1919 was originally the Milan Fiasco
• The party had no clear program or policies except
  for a belief in action. It also had ideas to
  bring about radical reform, however, they were
  not specific plans of action.
• The original stream of thought for the Milan
  Fiasco was based on left-wing politics, and the
  property class was not impressed by the new party
• In the elections of 1919, Mussolini did not
  manage to win himself a seat in the Chamber of
  Deputies
• From this point on, Fascist policy began to
  favour right wing politics

7
Political Developments

• By the end of 1920, support for the Fascist Party
  began to grow
• Support came form Italian nationalists wno took
  Mussolini as their leader due to his
  determination to implement a strong foreign
  policy
• As well, Italians were looking for a stable and
  strong government. During 1919-1920, the Italian
  government changed rapidly however, none of them
  had managed to find effective solutions to the
  problems of economic inflation and social unrest.
  
• Finally, the General Strike in 1920 worried the
  property class they feared a Communist
  revolution and wanted a strong government to
  restore law and order in the country
• With the support of the propertied classes,
  Mussolini established the National Fascist Party
  in 1921
• In the elections of May 1921, the Fascists fared
  much better, as they managed to gain 35 seats of
  355
• Following these elections, Mussolini begin to
  further change the policies of The Fascist Policy
• His aim was to now gain total power in Italy

8
Political Developments

• From 1921-1922, Mussolini
• Became increasingly anti-Bolshevik in an attempt
  to gain more support from the property class.
  Furthermore, he promised a strong government
  which would suppress and control socialist
  strikes and disturbances
• Promised a strong foreign policy established to
  bring national glory to Italy
• Economically, the party was now in favour of free
  enterprise
• Mussolinis two major themes for the Fascist
  party was nationalism and anti-Bolshevism.
  Mussolini's new tactics brought him much success
  as finances increased from industrialists.
• The fascist party continued to grow
• In 1921, the Fascists executed a terrorist
  campaign against the Socialists and Communists.
  During 1922 street battles were fought out
  between the two groups. The government army
  officers made no attempts to stop the Fascists.
  Eventually, armed Fascists ruled some towns with
  approval from the government and the property
  class.
• In an attempt to slow down the growing influence
  of the Fascists, the Socialists and Communists
  called for a general strike in 1922. However,
  because the strike was ill-prepared, it was
  easily suppressed by government troops with the
  help of Fascists. After this general strike, and
  the Fascists display of strength in putting down
  the strike, the property class relied more on the
  Fascists to defeat Socialism and Communism.

9
Political Developments

• March on Rome
• In 1922, following the attempted General Strike,
  Mussolini felt the time had come for him to seize
  power in Italy
• Mussolini threatened a March on Rome if he was
  not appointed to cabinet
• Armed Fascists began to march in from various
  parts of the country. Politicians genuinely
  feared the threat, as they had not managed to
  deal with the emergency.
• Immediately, the Liberal premier resigned to
  avoid any major civil war
• King Victor Emmanuel did not call out the army
  to resist the Fascists, because he, too, wished
  to avoid a civil war. As well, he felt Mussolini
  and the Fascists could form a strong government
  to restore law and order.
• The King asked Mussolini to form a new
  government, and in this manner, Mussolini became
  Prime Minister in a coalition government of
  Fascists, Nationalists, Catholics, and right-wing
  Liberals.
• Power was placed into Mussolini's hands by the
  king, and was thus a legal seizure of power

10
Political Developments

• Fascism
• The state is absolute and all individuals are
  relative
• Parliamentary democracy is inefficient and leads
  to corrupt government and so the whole
  parliamentary system must be discarded, in favour
  of a single leader
• Preference of state control to laissez faire
  Labour and capital must work together under the
  direction of the state
• Promotes a totalitarian state that controls all
  the political, economic and social activities of
  its people
• "Everything within the state, nothing against
  the state, nothing outside the state.- Mussolini

11
Political Developments

• 1922-1929
• A coalition government did not satisfy Mussolini,
  who wanted total power
• His goal was to be the ruler of a one-party
  totalitarian state
• From 1922 to 1929 he silenced all opposition in
  Italy
• He managed to do this by building up his own
  power in the government
• placed loyal Fascists in key government positions
  
• created the Voluntary Fascist Militia for
  National Security
• promoted the Grand Council of Fascism, which was
  the highest authority of the Fascist Party, into
  an organ of state.
• In 1923, Mussolini secured a new law from
  parliament. The new law allowed any party with
  25 of the votes in a general election would
  receive two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of
  Deputies. Following this, Mussolini arranged for
  elections in 1924. Using intimidation and
  violence the results of the elections favoured
  the Fascists, who obtained 63 of the votes.
• In 1924 when Parliament convened the Socialist
  leader insulted the Fascists for their use of
  force during the elections. He was immediately
  murdered by the Fascists.
• The opposition parties in parliament immediately
  withdrew. This was called the Aventine Secession.
  The Aventine Secession strengthened Mussolini's
  cause.
• In 1926, a law outlawed all political opposition,
  and a secret police force was established to
  arrest political opponents.
• For further control of the country, the workers'
  unions were dissolved and opposition newspapers
  were closed.
• In 1928, a new law abolished universal suffrage
  and restricted parliamentary elections to
  candidates officially nominated by the Fascist
  Grand Council.
• Soon Mussolini was able to govern by decrees. He
  issued a series of decrees which gave him
  complete legislative authority. The King accepted
  Mussolini as the permanent Prime Minister of
  Italy. Following this all other ministers were
  appointed according to Mussolini.

12
foreign policy

• Abyssinia (Ethiopia) Crisis
• both Italy and Ethiopia were members of the
  League of Nations, which forbade aggression
• but many nations were working independently of
  the League to keep Italy as an ally
• Franco-Italian Agreement French gave Italy some
  territory, and free rein to do what it wished in
  Ethiopia, in exchange for Italian support against
  German aggression
• there was little international protest when Italy
  sent troops to Italian colonies bordering
  Ethiopia
• Italy attacked (second Italo-Abyssinian War)
  which caused the League to condemn the attacks
  and impose economic sanctions on Italy however,
  this wasnt very effective as it excluded vital
  materials like oil, and not all members of the
  League participated
• secret Hoare-Laval plan (December 1935) put
  together by Britain and France to end the war,
  but give Italy control of large parts of Ethiopia
• Mussolini agreed to the plan, but caused large
  public outcry in Britain and France when the plan
  was leaked to the media
• Hoare and Laval were accused of betraying the
  Ethiopians, and both resigned
• the plan was dropped, but it had already started
  the perception that France and Britain werent
  serious about the principles of the League
• the plan was dropped, war continued, and
  Mussolini turned to Hitler for alliance

13
economic developments

• aim of all economic measures bring prosperity to
  Italy
• the Fascists inherited a lot of economic problems
  from the previous liberal government including a
  large budget deficit and 500 000 unemployed
• Mussolini realized that Italys weak economy
  (compared to France and Britain) had to be
  addressed if Italy was to become a major power
• 1922-1925
• most consistent success in tackling these
  economic problems
• liberal economist Alberto De Stefani was in
  charge of the Ministry of Finance
• measures abolition of price-fixing and rent
  controls, reduction of government spending
• results surplus budget (for first time since
  1918, and reduction in unemployed to 122 000

14
economic developments

• back to protectionism
• Mussolini departed from this (liberal) policy and
  replaced De Stefani with Giuseppe Volpi
  (financier and industrialist)
• measures heavy import duties (on grain, sugar,
  milk) revaluation of the lire in August 1926 at
  90 to the pound
• results difficulties in Italian economy long
  before the start of the Great Depression (low
  exchange rate of lire decreased tourism and trade
  in luxury commodities)
• why Mussolini did this
• Marxists thought this proof of Italian capitalism
• Mussolini was influenced by considerations of
  political prestige the revaluation of lire gave
  an artificial impression of strength

15
economic developments

• autarky (economic self-sufficiency)
• Mussolini introduced 3 battles to improve
  Italys economic prosperity
• battle for grain
• positive results
• production of grain increased from 40 million
  quintals (since 1870) to 60 million (1930) to
  80 million (1939)
• rich farmers benefited because they were
  guaranteed a good price
• negative results
• this was an uneconomic policy because wheat could
  have been bought from the United States at a much
  cheaper price
• grain was grown in place of fruits and vegetables
  that were much cheaper to produce
• Italian grain was more expensive to produce and
  price of bread increased which hit the poor hard
  because bread was a major part of their diet

16
economic developments

• autarky (economic self-sufficiency)
• battle for land
• goal
• marshland ? land suitable for farming

• results
• one of the areas drained was the Pontine Marshes
  near Rome which provided hundreds of thousands of
  acres of new farmland
• roads were also built on cleared land to improve
  infrastructure
• this plan was labour-intensive and employed lots
  of people
• generally, considered a success

Mussolini helping to drain the Pontine Marshes.
17
economic developments

• autarky (economic self-sufficiency)
• battle of the lira
• goal restore some of the purchasing power the
  lira used to have
• Mussolini wanted to create an image of Italy as a
  super power in Europe, and weak lira wouldnt
  have added to this image
• he inflated the value of the lira by making
  exports more expensive

• results
• caused unemployment because many industries and
  firms were unable to sell their goods
• this was a failure because the industrial base of
  Italy was too small

18
economic developments

• creation of a corporate state
• Charter of Labour (April 1927) the government
  brought employers and employees of the same trade
  into one confederation
• by 1936, there were 22 corporations formed which
  represented all the major branches of industrial,
  agricultural, artistic, and professional life,
  and were placed under the supervision of the
  National Council of Corporations (Mussolini was
  the Chairman)
• corporations provided health, unemployment and
  accident insurance
• strikes were forbidden if the workers had any
  complaints, they had to appeal to the Labour
  Courts, which were usually dominated by employers
  or officials who sided with the employers
• no minimum wage was established
• unemployment rose from 110 000 (1926) to over 1
  000 000 (1933) before dropping to 700 000

19
economic developments

• overall, Mussolini failed to increase the
  prosperity of Italy, and did in fact lower the
  standard of living for most Italians
• while the battle for land could be considered a
  success and a strong political symbol, it didnt
  really affect land ownership much
• in 1930, 87.3 of the farming population were
  peasant smallholders and they held 13.2 of the
  land, whilst the richest 0.5 of the landed
  population farmed on 41.9 of available land
  nothing really changed in the next decade
• in fact, smallholders and small-scale businesses
  found it harder to survive annual average of 7
  000 small farms passed to the exchequer because
  the owner was unable to pay the land tax

20
social developments

• education
• fascistisation of youth control of textbooks
  and curriculum, removal of teachers critical of
  Fascist principles
• April 1926 law introducing compulsory youth
  organizations to get male children on the Fascist
  path
• Figli della Lupa (Sons of the She-Wolf) ages
  4-8
• Balilla ages 8-14
• Avanguardisti (Vanguard) up to age 18
• Giovani Fascisti (Young Fascists) best
  graduates of the system to age 21
• no great advances in conventional educational
  areas
• 1901 illiteracy at 48.5
• 1921 illiteracy at 30
• 1931 illiteracy still above 20

21
social developments

• role of women/ battle for births (1927)
• like in Nazi Germany, women had a specific role
  in Fascist Italy
• get married and have lots of kids!
• increased population would prove Italian
  virility, give support to Italys claims for
  colonies, and increase army size
• goal increase in population from 37 million in
  1920 to 60 million in 1950, each family had a
  target of 5 children
• large families were rewarded with tax privileges,
  whereas bachelors (except priests and maimed war
  veterans) were taxed heavily
• abortion and contraception were illegal
• population did increase to 44.4 million in 1941,
  but this was due more to a fall in death rate
  (better medical care) and U.S. restrictions on
  immigration birth rate actually went down
  between 1927 and 1934

22
cultural developments

• media
• the government tried to change a means of
  communication into a coordinated political
  purpose
• by 1926 there was no opposition press
• sport
• used to breed Fascist values and as a source for
  nationalist propaganda
• Dopolavoro - formed May 25 to provide healthy
  and profitable ways for workers to spend their
  leisure time (i.e. cheap holidays, libraries,
  etc.)

1934 Football World Cup Poster
23
cultural developments

• Fascism and the Catholic Church
• Mussolini and other Fascists never lost their
  anti-clericalism, but Mussolini realized that he
  could not govern Italy successfully with
  Catholic opposition
• Papacy considered Fascism to be the only
  alternative to the godless doctrines of
  socialism
• generally, except for a period in 1927 when the
  Catholic boy scout movement was stopped by the
  State, the State and Church got along well
• education act (February 1923) restored the
  compulsory religious education in elementary
  schools that had been abolished by previous
  liberal government
• 1924 Pope helped out Fascism by withdrawing his
  support from the Catholic Popular Party, which
  couldnt survive after this, and Mussolini had no
  more major political rivals

24
cultural developments

• Fascism and the Catholic Church
• Lateran Accords (February 1929)
• settled most of outstanding conflicts between
  Papacy and State
• State restored some of Papacys temporal
  authority by creating a tiny state within Rome,
  known as Vatican City
• Catholicism was confirmed to be the only state
  religion, compulsory religious education was
  extended to secondary schools, and divorce was
  outlawed
• Pope received financial compensation for its
  losses since Italian seizure of Rome in 1870
• Mussolini gained popularity (the Church had great
  moral influence)
• The Lateran Accords were the greatest political
  successes of Mussolinis career, and the longest
  lasting impact of Fascism on modern day Italy

25
sources

• Fascist Italy. The Corner of the World.
• http//www.thecorner.org/hist/total/f-italy.htme
  con-life.
• The Economy in Fascist Italy. Trueman, Chris.
  History Learning Site.
• http//www.historylearningsite.co.uk/economy_in_f
  ascist_italy.htm.
• Europe 1870-1991. Morris, Terry Murphy,
  Derrick. Published in 2000 by Collins
  Educational, London.
• the end