Comprehension: Written and Spoken Language

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Comprehension Written and Spoken Language
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Conceptual and Rule Knowledge

• The first three levels of language analysis the
  phonological, syntactic, and lexical and semantic
  levels.
• Conceptual Knowledge The fourth level of
  analysis of language in Millers scheme, roughly
  equivalent to semantic memory.
• Beliefs The fifth level of analysis of
  language, according to Miller, in which the
  listeners attitudes and beliefs about the
  speaker influence what is comprehended and
  remembered.
• Pragmatics The aspects of language that are
  above and beyond the words, so-called
  extralinguistic factors.

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Propositional Theory

• Proposition representation of meaning that can
  be stored and retrieved from memory
• A combination of concepts and relationships that
  express the meaning of a sentence
• Propositions are made up of all the basic ideas
  in a sentence and their relationship
• Simpler concept a proposition is the briefest
  unit of language that can be judged true or false

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Example

• I am going downtown with my sister at 400
  oclock.
• Made up of 3 basic concepts
• Im going downtown
• Im going with my sister
• We are going at 400 oclock

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Advantages of Propositional Theory

• 1. propositions provide the meaning of a
  sentence, and the meaning remains even if surface
  structure changes
• 2. propositions help us to understand the
  relationship between sentences
• A proposition can represent the relationship of
  concepts in a sentence and between sentences

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Evidence for propositional theory

• 1st prediction of the theory Sentences with
  more underlying propositions will be more
  difficult to understand and remember
  overloading working memory
• Working memory holds propositions (not words) in
  memory so we can understand what we have read

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Kintsch (1974)

• Subjects given groups of 5 sentences
• Sentences differed on 2 dimensions
• Number of content words 2 - 4
• Number of propositions 1 - 3
• Examples
• The crowded passengers squirmed uncomfortably
• The horse stumbled and broke a leg
• Later asked to recall them

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Kintsch (1974)

• Results memory for propositions decreased as
  number of propositions increased. Number of
  words had no effect
• Conclusion Prediction upheld

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Evidence for propositional theory

• 2nd prediction - If we store propositions in
  memory, then concepts within the same proposition
  should be stored together
• Example the horse stumbled and broke a leg
• Hearing the word horse should facilitate the
  memory of stumbled more than leg

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Evidence for propositional theory

• Van Dijk and Kintsch (1983)
• Subjects given sentences with 2 propositions
• Given a word in the sentence and asked if a
  target word was in the same sentence. Reaction
  time measured under 3 conditions
• 1. Word not in the same sentence
• 2. Word in the sentence not in the same
  proposition
• 3. Both words in the same proposition
• Results reaction time faster in condition 3, then
  condition 2

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Gernsbachers Structure building Framework

• Language comprehension is a process of building
  propositions mental structures
• 3 Basic components
• Laying a foundation
• mapping information onto the structure
• shifting to new structures

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Textbook example

• Dave was studying hard for his statistics
  midterm.
• Because the professor had a reputation for
  giving difficult exams, the students knew theyd
  have to be well prepared.

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Predictions of Gernsbachers theory

• The advantage of 1st mention the foundation is
  formed 1st and generally involves the 1st idea or
  character mentioned. Therefore, it should be the
  most easily recalled.
• The advantage of clause recency immediately
  after hearing the sentence the last or most
  recent clause is more easily remembered

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Support for theory

• Gernsbacher and Hargreaves (1988)
• Subjects given a sentence with 2 propositions
• Tina gathered kindling as Lisa set up the tent
• Given a name and asked if it was in the sentence.
  Reaction time measured

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Gernsbacher and Hargreaves (1988) - Results

• If the name was presented immediately after the
  sentence, reaction time to Lisa was fastest.
• With a delay of more than 150msec, reaction time
  for Tina was fastest
• Conclusion ideas, characters, etc. in the focus
  first mentioned are most important to structure
  and memory

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Reference, Inference, and Memory
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Reference

• References allude to a concept by using another
  word such as pronouns
• 4 types of references
• Direct there is a direct connection between the
  word and what it refers to
• Indirect no direct connection but the
  connection can be made by association
• Indirect by characterization
• Other

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Implication and Inference

• Implication There is an intended reference in a
  sentence or utterance, but it is not mentioned
  explicitly.
• Inference The process by which the listener or
  reader draws connections between concepts,
  determines the referents of words and ideas, and
  derives conclusions from a message.

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Bridging

• Bridging the mental processes of reference,
  implication, and inference during language
  comprehension.
• Authorized implication Intended or correct.
• Unauthorized implication or inference Not
  intended, especially said of inferences drawn
  during a conversation.

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Reading
Reading
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Gaze Duration Procedures

• Gaze Duration How long the eyes fixate on a
  specific word during reading, the principal
  measure of online comprehension during reading.
• Some reading basics
• Saccades quick eye movements, in reading 7 to 9
  letter moves
• Fixation the pause during which the eye is
  almost stationary and is taking in visual
  information.
• Average fixation in reading English is 200 to
  250msec

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• The pattern of fixations of a good (left panel)
  and poor (right panel) reader, showing where the
  fixations occurred in the sentences and the
  duration of the fixations.

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Gaze Duration Procedures

• Immediacy Assumption Readers try to interpret
  each content word of a text as that word is
  encountered in the passage.
• Eye-Mind Assumption The eye remains fixated on
  a word as long as that word is being actively
  processed the eyes fixate on a word and reveal
  something about the mental time spent on that
  word.

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Eye fixations of a college student reading a
scientific passage.
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Just (1976)

• Examined regressive eye movements, that is,
  movements back to a portion of text that had been
  read earlier.
• The tenant complained to the landlord about the
  leaky roof. The next day, he went to the attic
  to get his luggage
• The tenant complained to the landlord about the
  leaky roof. The next day he went to the attic to
  repair the damage

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The Structure of Conversations

• Conversations are structured by cognitive and
  social variables and rules governing the what and
  how of our contributions. To begin with, we take
  turns. The rules for taking turns
• First, the current speaker is in charge of
  selecting the next speaker
• Second, if the first rule isnt used, then any
  participant can become the current speaker
• Third, if no one else takes the turn, the current
  speaker may continue to speak or the conversation
  can end.

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The Structure of Conversations

• Social Roles and Settings The social roles of
  conversational partners, along with
  conversational setting, exert a strong influence
  on who participates and the contributions made by
  the participants

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Conversational Rules

• Rules that govern our conversational interactions
  with others.
• Relevance
• Quantity
• Quality
• Manner and tone

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2 Additional Conversational Rules

• Attending to your conversational partners
• Direct theory
• Second order theory
• If you violate any of the conversational rules,
  you should explain why
• Sometimes violations are intentional to avoid
  saying something you dont want to say

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Cooperative Principle

• The idea that each participant in a conversation
  implicitly assumes that all speakers are
  following the rules and that each contribution to
  the conversation is a sincere, appropriate
  contribution.

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Empirical Effects in Conversation

• Indirect Requests we ask someone to do
  something by an indirect and presumably more
  polite statement.
• Indirect replies usually to save face or you
  dont want to hurt someones feelings, but dont
  want to lie

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Egocentric Speech

• Do adults plan an utterance so that we provide
  the a person with the optimal information they
  need to clearly understand what we are saying?
• No, adults disregard the principle of optimal
  design and speak as egocentrically as children.
  Their initial utterances are egocentric, taking
  into account only their own perspectives. We
  assume that they have the same perspective as we
  do.