Overview of Class

1
Overview of Class

• Review Exploratory Designs
• Introduction to Descriptive Designs
• Introduction to Single System Designs

2
Types of Research Associated with Exploratory
Designs
3
Participatory Action Research

• Definition
• An approach to social research in which the
  people being studied are given control over the
  purpose and procedures of the research intended
  as a counter to the implicit view that
  researchers are superior to those they study
  (Babbie, 2001).

4
Participatory Action Research

• Core Elements
• Partnership with Stakeholders
• Ownership
• Action
• May include qualitative and quantitative data
• Purpose may be exploratory, descriptive,
  explanatory

5
Case Study Research

• Definition
• The in-depth examination of a single instance of
  some social phenomenon, such as a village, a
  family, or a juvenile gang (Babbie, 2001).

6
Case Studies

• Core Elements
• Little consensus as to what constitutes a case
  study
• Considerable time spent immersed in setting
• Goal Depth of understanding
• Usually exploratory and descriptive
• Focus is typically on generating qualitative data

7
Ethnographic Research

• Definition
• A systematic study of human cultures and the
  similarities and dissimilarities between them
  (Grinnell, 2001).
• A report on social life that focuses on detailed
  and accurate description rather than explanation
  (Babbie, 2001).

8
Ethnographic Studies

• Core Elements
• Emphasis on Culture
• Telling Story
• Explores and Describes
• Dominated by qualitative data
• Immersion in Culture, Language, Setting

9
Introduction to Descriptive Designs

• Definition/Purpose
• Commonly referred to as Survey Research and
  typically associated with quantitative research.
  Descriptive designs are generally used when the
  researcher wants to
• Describe the distribution of a variable in
  relation to a particular population.
• Describe the relationship between variables.
• Describe the distribution of a particular
  variable(s) in a population over time.

10
Variables Under Study in Descriptive Studies

• Sociological (Demographic) Variables gender,
  income, political and religious affiliations,
  education, age, race, occupation, sexual
  orientation, etc.
• Psychological Variables opinions, attitudes, and
  behavior.
• Descriptive studies typically are interested in
  how sociological and psychological variables
  relate.

11
Types of Descriptive Designs

• Traditional Survey Design
• A snapshot in time
• Examines a particular aspect of a sample

12
Types of Descriptive Designs Continued

• Cross Sectional Survey Designs
• A snapshot in time
• The Dimension of Time

13
Types of Descriptive Designs Continued

• Longitudinal Designs
• Many snapshots over time
• Two types
• Panel Studies
• Trend Studies

14
Descriptive vs. Exploratory Designs

• Critical Distinguishing Factors
• Sampling Strategy probability vs.
  non-probability
• Instrumentation quantitative vs. qualitative
• Theory

15
Data Collection Methods

• Interviews
• Face-to-face
• Telephone
• Questionnaires
• Mailed (Surveys)
• In person--Self-administered Surveys
• Observational Methods

16
Data Collection Interviews

• Advantages
• Highest response rate
• Allows for clarification
• Allows for probing
• Identification of non-verbal cues
• Data can be collected from individuals unable to
  read

17
Data Collection Questionnaires

• Advantages
• Greater Anonymity of participants
• Easiest to administer (expense, time)
• Large sample, with least cost
• Participants not pressured to answer immediately
• Greater standardization, uniformity for analysis

18
Data Collection Observational Methods

• Advantages
• Allows for observations of behaviors as they are
  on-going in natural settings.
• Does not rely on the validity of verbal or
  written reports.
• Can be used with all populations regardless of
  literacy or verbal facility (provided
  participants are accessible for observation).

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Survey Construction

• Examine attitude scales that have already been
  developed
• http//www.ericae.net
• Click on Test Locator
• Scroll down and click on Free Tests and
  Instruments
• Type in subject area (e.g., attitudes toward
  gays and lesbians)
• http//www.buros.unl.edu/burso/jsp/search.jsp
• Mental Measurement Yearbook Test Reviews
• 4,000 commercially available tests

20
Survey Construction Continues

• Consult a Questionnaire Text to get advice on
• How to ask demographic questions
• How to ask attitudinal questions
• How to format your questionnaire
• Patton, M.L. (2001). Questionnaire research A
  practical guide. Los Angeles Pyrczak Publishing

21
Dos and Donts of Survey Construction (Patton,
2001)

• Ask demographic questions sparingly
• Avoid invading the privacy of others with
  demographic items
• When appropriate, consider provide ranges of
  values instead of asking for the precise value
• Carefully consider the range of values you
  present in an item

22
Dos and Donts of Survey Construction (Patton,
2001)

• Use standard categories whenever possible
• Consider placing demographic questions at the end
  of a questionnaire.
• Write a descriptive title for the questionnaire
• Write an introduction to the questionnaire.
• Group the items by content, and provide a
  subtitle for each group.

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Dos and Donts of Survey Construction (Patton,
2001)

• Within each group of items, place items with the
  same format together.
• At the end of the questionnaire, indicate what
  respondents should do next.

24
Survey Construction

• Consider using Likert-type items
• Strongly Agree
• Agree
• Neutral
• Disagree
• Strongly Disagree
• Use dont know sparingly

25
Pretest Your Tool

• Have your items reviewed by others
• Think-alouds
• Small sample (n25) completes the survey
• Consider using tools that have been tested for
  reliability and validity

26
Types of Unobtrusive Descriptive Research

• Content Analysis
• Definition
• A study of recorded communication, such as
  books, Web sites, newspapers, laws, speeches.
• Who says what, to whom, why, how, and with what
  effect (Babbie, 2001)

27
Types of Unobtrusive Descriptive Research

• Secondary Data Analysis
• Definition
• A research approach that relies on existing
  data. Data that predate the formulation of the
  research study are used to answer the research
  question or test the research hypothesis
  (Grinnell, 2001)

28
Types of Unobtrusive Descriptive Research

• Secondary Data Analysis
• A form or research in which the data collected
  and processed by one researcher are
  reanalyzedoften for a different purposeby
  another (Babbie, 2001).

29
Traditional Group Designs

• Core Components
• Random Assignment
• Experimental Control Groups
• Pretest/Posttest
• Statistical Analysis

30
Group Designs Obstacles to Self-Evaluation

• Focus on Group Average, Not Individual
• Reality Constraints Core Components?
• Meaningfulness of the Findings

31
Single System Designs Factors Promoting
Self-Evaluation

• Focus on Individual and/or Group
• User Friendly/Easy to Implement
• Produces Meaningful Data
• No Complex Statistical Analysis Required
• Efficient Effective Research Process
• Procedures are Consistent with Good Practice

32
SSD Overarching Principles

• Assessment Intervention
• Multiple (Repeated) Measures Taken
• Results Assess Impact of Intervention
• Did Client System Improve?

33
SSD Basic Requirements

• 1. Objectives (Outcomes) must be clearly stated
  and measurable.
• 2. Outcomes must produce quantitative data that
  are both reliable and valid.
• 3. Data must be graphically displayed.

34
Measurable Objectives

• Must Produce Numbers Quantification
• Short-term/Proximate Indicators
• Who? What? Where? When? How Much?

35
Goals Versus Objectives

• Goal
• Improved Academic Performance
• Proximate Indicators
• Improved Attendance
• Reduced Tardiness
• Improved Study Habits
• Reduction in Behavioral Referrals

36
Data Sources Reliable Valid Data

• Direct Observation
• Self-Reports
• Paper-Pencil Measures
• Existing Records
• TRIANGULATION

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Displaying Data

• Must have a minimum of three observations.
• Dimension of time presented on the horizontal
  axis.
• Outcome/objective measure presented on the
  vertical axis.

38
Truant Days
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Cross-Cultural Knowledge