The ISS Legal Framework and Commercial Utilisation

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• The ISS Legal Framework and Commercial
  Utilisation
• Prof. Dr. Frans G. von der Dunk
• University of Nebraska-Lincoln, College of Law

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Manned versus unmanned

• Launch, satcoms, satnav, etc.
• ?? Manned space flight man actually in space,
  conducting activities
• Short-term traffic rules
• From transit to presence
• ? From captains to scientists spies
  producers even tourists
• Long-time human presence in outer space
• ? Issues of jurisdiction in space

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Jurisdiction under general international law

• Attribute of states ? of sovereignty
• Legislative jurisdiction
• Adjudicative jurisdiction
• Enforcement jurisdiction
• Various legal bases for exercise
• Territorial
• Personal
• Special space-law based Art. VIII, OST

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Building the ISS - in law

• 1984 US initiative
• 1988 InterGovernmental Agreement (IGA) on
  Freedom
• US Canada Japan 11 ESA member states
• 1998 Russia joins ? ISS
• 1997 Brazil joined (at 2nd level)
• 1998 Commercial utilisation allowed

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ISS elements

• Russia service other modules
• US habitation module Destiny (laboratory)
• ESA Columbus (laboratory)
• Japan Kibo (laboratory)
• Canada MSS incl. Canadarm-2
• All except Canada flight supply elements

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Building the ISS

• Aim largest space facility - by far
• 0.47M kg, 108 x 88 m
• At 350-460 km, lt 28K km/h, lt 16 orbits/day
• 1998 1st module (Zarya)
• 2000 1st manned expedition
• Since then continuously manned
• 2010-6 (planned) fully operational
• Space Shuttle, Soyuz Progress

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The legal structure

• IGA (intergovernmental level)
• MoUs (agency level)
• Artt. 4(2), 9, IGA
• NASA with CSA, ESA, JAXA Roskosmos
• Implementing arrangements (below)
• ? Contractual arrangements
• Brazilian participation
• Crew Code of Conduct

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The IGA (1)

• Art. 1 object scope
• Peaceful purposes international law
• Note various interpretations peaceful purposes
  
• Partners - Art. 3
• b 4 x national governments, 1 x IGO
• ESA launching authority under RA launching
  state under LC state of registry under RC
• ?? c Partner States
• ? Cooperating Agencies (Art. 4)

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The IGA (2)

• Registration (Art. 5)
• Elements (modules) per individual partner
• Note Original US intention to register whole
  station as one space object under RC
• ? Jurisdiction per module
• Note ESA ?? jurisdiction
• Jurisdiction ? Ownership (Art. 6)
• ...of the respective elements
• Ownership of equipment notification required of
  existing ownership

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The IGA (3)

• Utilisation (Art. 9) operation (Art. 10)
• Funding closed purses (Art. 15)
• Columbus 51 ESA, 49 NASA CSA (2.3)
• Kibo 51 JAXA, 49 NASA CSA (2.3)
• Destiny 100 NASA CSA (2.3)
• Crew time, power from solar panel structure,
  supporting services (upload / download
  communication) 76.6 NASA, 12.8 JAXA, 8.3 ESA
  2.3 CSA

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Special issue 1 Liability

• Art. 17 the general rule
• Art. 16 the exception
• Intra-Space Station
• Not just intra-partners
• Protected Space Operations ( 2(f))
• Wide definition of damage ( 2(c))
• Compared to Liability Convention (Art. 1(a))
• Cross-waiver of liability
• Exceptions ( 3(d))

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IGA pillar structure

Note ?? means cross-waiver Art. 16, IGA
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Flown-down obligations

• 3(b) each Partner State
• Vis-à-vis all its related entities, contractors
  sub-contractors
• I.e. as between pillars
• Note Definition related entity 2(b)
• Issue of ESA as Partner ?? State
• 2(a) State includes Cooperating Agency
• Only relation ESA-individual m/s not dealt with

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Special issue 2 IPR

• Focus on patents
• Art. 21(2) only in the territory
• ? Quasi-territorial approach
• US Patents in Space Act, 1990
• Ref. retention of jurisdiction Art. VIII, OST
• Special case ESA under 2
• ? Cf. also 4, 5
• So far only Germany Italy ...

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Special issue 3 Crime

• Art. 22(1) active personal jurisdiction!
• Exceptions under 2
• Threat to life or safety (passive personal)
• Threat to flight element (quasi-territorial)
• Possibilities to exercise other jurisdiction
• Extradition under 3
• Requires treaty provision under intl law
• Cf. 1988-version of Art. 22!

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Special issue 4 CCoC

• Art. 11, IGA crew sovereign choice
• 2 internal procedures
• Aims
• Establish clear chain of command-in-orbit
• Establish clear relationship ground control
  versus ISS crew
• Standards for work other activities in space
• Set forth relevant disciplinary regulations

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Commercial utilisation (1)

• P.M. Art. 9, IGA utilisation rights in
• Late 90s problems of justification in economic
  terms
• ? Aim ? 30 commercial
• Essentially US, ESA Japan
• 2001 Multilateral Control Board
• Coordination approaches to commercial activities
• ? Multilateral Commercialisation Group
• Ethical, political commercial questions

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Commercial utilisation (2)

• 2002 Recommended Guidelines
• R D
• Sponsorship
• Merchandising, advertising entertainment
• Space flight participants...
• Guidelines
• No compromising of safety info security
• No promotion of
• Alcohol, tobacco, religion, politics,
  intolerance, violence, obscenity, gambling

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... ? Orbital space tourism

• Private tourists - public spacecraft
• IV/2001 Tito on Russian part ISS
• Launched on Soyuz from Kazakhstan
• Private broker MirCorp ? Space Adventures
• ISS as ruled by IGA public infrastructure
• ? Special ad hoc intra-ISS agreement
• ? Generalised in intra-ISS agreement , I/2002
• Principles Regarding Processes and Criteria for
  Selection, Assignment, Training and Certification
  of ISS (Expedition and Visiting) Crewmembers

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? Spaceflight participants

• Versus astronauts
• Individuals sponsored by (a) Partner(s), such as
  crewmembers of non-Partner space agencies,
  engineers, scientists, teachers, journalists,
  filmmakers or tourists
• Shuttleworth 2002, Olson 2005, Ansari 2006,
  Simonyi 2007
• 7-10 days, at ? 20 M US each

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Legal status tourists crew

• ? No envoys of mankind
• Art. V, Outer Space Treaty
• ... Personnel of a spacecraft?
• Artt. 1-4, Rescue Agreement
• Usually equated to astronauts
• Tourists?
• Relatively large infringement national
  sovereignty
• General humanitarian rights of assistance

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Liability issues (1)

• Liability Convention 1972
• Essentially 3rd party international
• Damage unlimited, in principle (Art. XII)
• State liability - launching State
• Art. I(c) launching procurement territory
  facility
• ? 1. Need for licensing private operators...
• and provide for reimbursement obligation
• Or 2. Commit tourist to reimbursement
  contractually
• ? Russia takes out insurance policy

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Liability issues (2)

• IGA 1998
• Damage between parties still state-to-state...
• With far-reaching flow-down provisions
• rather comprehensively waived! (Art. 16)
• Need at least to consult other partners
• Note Russian insurance Tito was for liability
  under LC
• ? Russia obliged Tito to stay within Russian
  module
• No arrangement personal liability
• Hitherto persons astronauts
• I.e. employees of space agencies with labour
  contract

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Concluding remarks

• Truly international space station in many
  respects, including legal
• Discussion justification costs
• Does science need manned spaceflight?
• After 2016 US directs attention elsewhere
• Also Shuttle by then taken out of service
• ... Will commercialisation do the trick...?
• Nowadays PPPs often seen as deus ex machina...