16. Automation

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16. Automation

• WHY AUTOMATE
• impossible or hazardous
• difficult or unpleasant
• extend human capability
• technically possible
• STAGES AND LEVELS OF AUTOMATION
• information acquisition, selection, and filtering
  selective attention --automatic highlighting
• information integration perception and working
  memory -- predictor displays
• action selection and choice traffic alert and
  collision avoidance system (TCAS)
• control and action execution autopilots, cruise
  control
• PROBLEMS IN AUTOMATION
• Automation Reliability
• reliable it does what the human operator
  expects it to do
• not the reliability per se but the perceived
  reliability
• why automation may be perceived as unreliable
• it may be unreliable
• there may be certain situations in which the
  automation is not designed to operate or may not
  perform well dumb and dutiful
• the human operator may incorrectly set up the
  automation
• due to poor mental model, it appears to be acting
  erroneously to the operator

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• Trust Calibration and Mistrust
• trust should be well calibrated trust should be
  in direct proportion to its reliability
• mistrust occurs when trust is not directly
  related to reliability
• distrust is a type of mistrust where the person
  fails to trust the automation as much as is
  appropriate are not necessarily severe, but may
  lead to inefficiency
• Overtrust and Complacency
• overtrust occurs when people trust the automation
  more than is warranted severe negative
  consequences if the automation is less than fully
  reliable
• human tendency to let experience guide our
  expectancies perceived perfect reliability
• three distinct implications for human
  intervention to automation
• detection the complacent operator will likely be
  slower to detect a real failure the more
  reliable, the rarer the signal, and the poorer
  their detection
• situation awareness better aware with active
  participation (generation effect) out of the
  loop, poor feedback of the automated process
• skill loss (deskilling) the gradual loss of
  skills
• less self-confident ? more likely to continue to
  use automation
• degrade the operators ability to intervene
  approximately (fig 16.1)
• Workload and Situation Awareness
• as automation level moves up the scale, both
  workload and SA tend to go down
• clumsy automation automation makes easy tasks
  easier and hard tasks harder
• Training and Certification

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• Loss of Human Cooperation
• Job Satisfaction
• FUNCTION ALLOCATION BETWEEN THE PERSON AND
  AUTOMATION
• HUMAN-CENTERED AUTOMATION
• keeping the human informed
• keeping the human trained
• keeping the operator in the loop
• selecting appropriate stages and levels when
  automation is imperfect (fig 16.2)
• making the automation flexible and adaptive
• maintaining a positive management philosophy
• SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND AUTOMATION-BASED COMPLEX
  SYSTEM
• automation is not optional, but necessity --
  production of continuous quantities (chemical
  process control), production of discrete
  quantities (manufacturing control), robotics
  control
• how to support the supervisor in times of
  failures and fault management ? knowledge-based
  behavior, predictor displays, ecological
  interface
• robotics control in manufacturing and in
  navigating UAV
• hortatory control the systems being controlled
  retains a high degree of autonomy

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17. Transportation Human Factors

• AUTOMOTIVE HUMAN FACTORS
• Task Analysis of the Vehicle Roadway System
• Strategic, Tactical, and Control Aspects of
  Driving
• strategic tasks deciding where to go, when to
  go and how to get there
• tactical tasks choice of maneuvers and
  immediate goals in getting to a destination such
  as speed selection, the decision to pass another
  vehicle, and the choice of lanes
• control tasks moment-to-moment operation of the
  vehicle such as maintaining a desired speed,
  keeping the desired distance from the car ahead,
  keeping the car in the lane
• Control Task
• two-dimensional tracking task of vehicle control
• the lateral task of maintaining lane position
  2nd-order control task with preview and a
  predictor ? the best measure is the time to lane
  crossing (TLC)
• longitudinal task as a first-order tracking task
  of speed keeping
• three channels of visual information to be
  tracked along the two axes
• lateral tracking by the roadway curvature
• longitudinal tracking by the flow of motion along
  the roadway and the location or distance of
  hazards and traffic control devices

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• Multitask Demands
• primary control task -- lane keeping and roadway
  hazard monitoring dependent upon primary vision
  attention lobe (PVAL) of information (fig 17.1
  and 17.2)
• inattention, competing visual tasks
• secondary motor activity conflict with
  monitoring and processing and visual information
  in the PVAL
• Cabin Environment
• create the simplest, most user-friendly design of
  the internal displays and controls
• Visibility
• Anthropometry
• anthropometric factors of seating reachability
  of different controls
• design for the mean is not appropriate --
  controls accessible and interpretable
• Illumination
• adequate highway lightning, adequate reflectors
• Signage
• minimize visual clutter from unnecessary signs
• locate signs consistently
• identify sign classes distinctly color, shape
• allow signs to be read efficiently

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• Resource Competition
• serious distraction of in-cab viewing the
  number and duration of glances feel safe less
  than 0.8 sec/glance, 3 sec between glances
• auditory display, speech recognition, HUD
• Hazards and Collisions
• Control Loss
• slick or icy road conditions, narrow lanes and
  momentarily lapses in attention, rapid
  over-correction (minor lane departure) roadway
  departure because of fatigue
• directly related to the bandwidth of correction
  vehicle speed
• Hazard Response
• poor visibility and inattention can cause a
  failure to detect hazards
• the time to react to unexpected objects (the
  perception-reaction time or brake reaction time)
  1 to 2 sec, mean of 1.5 sec
• Speeding
• quadruple threat to driver safety (1) increases
  the likelihood of control loss (2) decreases the
  probability of detecting hazard in time (3)
  increases the distance traveled before a
  successful avoidance maneuver (4) increases the
  damage at impact (fig 17.3)
• why do people speed?
• perceptual biases (underestimating true speed)
  size biased distance judgments bias to overspeed
  (quieter engines, higher seating position above
  the ground, less visible ground texture),
  adaptation
• cognitive biases (overestimating the ability to
  stop in time)

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• Risky Behavior
• cognitive biases to overspeeding overconfidence
  (underestimation of risk), expectancy (no
  experience of a collision little effect on the
  behavior of survivors)
• The Impaired Driver
• Fatigue
• over 50 of the accidents leading to the death of
  a truck driver and over 10 of all fatal car
  accidents
• Alcohol
• the most effective interventions may be social
  norming
• Age
• Impairment Interactions
• Driving Safety Improvements
• Driver Characteristics Training and Selection
• higher accident rates were related with limited
  skills (for the very young driver) and limited
  information processing abilities (for the
  elderly)
• graduated licensing for younger drivers, more
  frequent driving test
• the standard visual acuity test very little
  relevance for driving ? dynamic visual acuity
• Driver Characteristics Driver Adaptation and
  Risk Calibration
• risk homeostasis model partially consistent ?
  motive for driving faster and force of habit
• any safety intervention must consider the
  tendency for people to adapt to the new situation

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• Driver Characteristics Regulatory Compliance
• effective enforcement of speed limits can make a
  difference automatic speed management system,
  automated systems for issuing tickets
• Driver and Vehicle Characteristics Fitness to
  Drive
• driver monitoring system -- monitoring the
  vehicle (e.g., steering behavior) and the driver
  (e.g., blinking rate, EEG)
• Vehicle Characteristics Sensing and Warnings
• high mounted brake lights, trilight system
• Roadway Characteristics Expectancy
• positive guidance, light cycle
• expectancy and standardization on sign location
  and interaction design
• reduce the consequence of an accident
• Driver and Vehicle Characteristics Use of
  Protective Devices
• AUTOMATIVE AUTOMATION
• Intelligent Transportation System (ITS)
  collision warning systems, automated navigation
  systems, driver monitors GPS system, traffic
  sensing devices, digital map database, wireless
  connection
• user trust and complacency
• attention may be drawn more into the vehicle
• introduce a new type of productivity and safety
  tradeoff in driving

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• PUBLIC GROUND TRANSPORTATION
• Maritime Human Factors
• fatigue and crew reductions
• extremely sluggish in their handling qualities,
  benefiting from predictive displays
• Aviation Human Factors
• The Tasks
• primary multiaxis tracking task -- aviating
• maintaining situation awareness, navigating to
  three-dimensional points, following procedures,
  communicating with controllers and other pilots,
  monitoring system status
• competition -- visual, perceptual, cognitive, and
  response-related resources
• Tracking and Flight Control
• 6 degrees of freedom of motion
• rotational axes -- pitch, roll (or bank), and yaw
• translational axes lateral, vertical, and
  longitudinal
• two primary goals
• aviating -- keeping the plane from stalling by
  maintaining adequate air flow over the wings,
  which produces lift ? control of the airspeed and
  attitude (pitch and roll)
• navigate the aircraft to points in the 3-D
  airspace (4-D navigation with time)
• yoke controls the elevators and ailerons pitch
  and bank (first-order dynamics)
• throttle controls airspeed
• rudder pedals help coordinate turning and heading
  changes

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• three facets make the multielements tracking task
  much more difficult
• displays do not show a good, integrated,
  pictorial representation of the aircraft
• the dynamics of several aspects of flight control
  are higher order
• the axes often have cross-couplings
• Maintaining Situation Awareness
• achieving SA through display design -- HUD
• Following Procedures
• to assist the pilots prospective memory
  knowledge in the world in the checklist
• two kinds of errors in following checklists
• top-down processing (coupled with time pressure)
  may lead to see the item in its appropriate
  state, even if it is not
• distractions can lead the pilot to skip a step in
  the checklist
• redundant participation, automation
• The Social Context
• breakdowns in pilot team performance ? junior vs.
  senior ? CRM (cockpit/crew resource management)
• Supporting the Pilot
• maintenance technicians and their inspection and
  trouble shooting skills
• aircraft automation human-centered automation
• air traffic control

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18. Selection and Training

• PERSONNEL SELECTION
• predicting future job performance categorize
  accepted applicants into the job type
• interviews, work histories, background checks,
  tests, references, work samples
• signal detection theory ? hit, miss, false alarm,
  correct rejection
• Basics of Selection
• job analysis selection, training, performance
  appraisal, setting salary levels ? tasks,
  environments, related knowledge, skills,
  abilities
• already have the task-specific knowledge and
  skills required or show evidence of basic
  knowledge and abilities
• criterion-related validity Fig. 18.1
• Selection Tests and Procedures
• Measures of Cognitive Ability
• standardized tests ? more valid than any others
• complex jobs (general intelligence working
  memory capacity) high complexity (verbal and
  numerical ability) low complexity (motor
  coordination and manual dexterity)
• Measures of Physical Ability and Psychomotor
  Skills
• physical strength, physical endurance, manual
  dexterity, and/or psychomotor skills
• Personality Assessment
• clinical measures mental illness or behavioral
  disorders not appropriate
• personality dimensions five basic personality
  factors/clusters

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• Work Samples and Job Knowledge
• work sampling expensive to assess
• video assessment see a short scenario and
  respond in the situation
• job knowledge test high transferable knowledge
  to the job, motivation factor
• Structured Interviews
• questions based on and related to knowledge and
  skills identified in the job analysis
• describe previous work behavior ? critical
  behavior interview discuss recent occasions
  when they felt they were performing at their best
• PERFORMANCE SUPPORT AND JOB AIDS
• performance-support approach ? as needed basis,
  shifting a learn-and-apply to
  learning-while-applying cycle
• performance support the process of providing a
  set of information and learning activities in a
  context-specific fashion during task performance
  ? efficient because of less taxing on memory
  Fig. 18.2
• Job Aids and Instructions
• job aids - daily to-do list, recipe, note cards,
  computer templates, instructions for assembling a
  product, procedural lists
• traditional instruction manual ? Wrights
  quidelines -- caution against using prose,
  effective use of pictures (redundancy gain),
  proximity-compatibility principle
• voice coupled with pictures when presenting
  instructions
• Embedded Computer Support
• on-line help system adaptive automation ?
  interrupting the ongoing task
• when to use performance support, training, or
  both table 18.1

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• TRAINING
• Learning and Expertise
• three different stages in the development of
  expertise (fig. 18.4, 18.5)
• knowledge about a job or a task characterized by
  declarative knowledge not well organized,
  fragile
• with familiarity and practice, procedural
  knowledge by rules and if-then statements
• automaticity
• Methods for Enhancing Training
• the best training in the shortest time, to the
  longest retention, the least expensive
• Practice and Overlearning
• overlearning beyond error-free performance
• improving in the speed of performance involving
  cognitive or motor aspects ? automaticity ?
  important in skills with high multitasking
  requirements
• decrease the rate of forgetting and increase the
  ease of a task
• Encouraging Deep, Active, and Meaningful
  Processing
• deep processing -- chunking in the formation of
  meaningful associations with material already in
  WM to learn the new material
• generation effect
• active problem solving and group participation
• better retained when understanding why rather
  than what embedded in the context of the
  procedural task to be learned

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• Offering Feedback
• corrective feedback, motivational feedback
• immediately after the skill is performed
• Consider Individual Differences
• redundancy of graphics and words is most helpful
• Pay Attention to Attention
• learning is information processing, and
  information processing is generally resources
  limited
• cognitive load theory
• Training in Parts
• part-task training is not always superior to
  whole-task training ? how the task is broken down
• segmentation several components occurring in
  sequence without overlapping
• fractionation component tasks performed
  simultaneously or concurrently
• Simplifying, Guiding and Adaptive Training
• simplification reducing load and errors of
  performance
• guiding training wheels approach disabling
  or freezing keys
• simplified version of a skill will not transfer
  to the complex version
• learners can become overly dependent on the
  guidance or scaffolding
• Media Matters?
• modest benefits of computer-based instruction
  these gains are not large ? the particular aspect
  of the computer media not the computer itself

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• Transfer of Training and Simulation
• how well the learning in one environment enhance
  performance in a new environment
• positive/negative transfer
• transfer (control time transfer
  time)/(control time)100 savings/(control
  time)100
• transfer effectiveness ratio savings/(training
  time)
• realism or fidelity of the simulator more
  realism does not necessarily produce more
  positive transfer
• On the Job Training and Embedded training
• much less effective than other training methods
  very effective if using Instructional System
  Design with strong guidance to the trainer
• embedded training is most appropriate for jobs
  that rely at least partially on computers
• TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGN
• A Training Program Design Model
• ISD (Instructional System Design) models
  similar to human factors design models
• front-end analysis phase ? design and development
  phase ? implementation ? final system evaluation
  phase
• developing job aids, instructional manuals,
  performance-support systems in addition to more
  traditional training programs

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• Phase 1 Front-End Analysis
• organizational analysis
• information-collection activity to identify any
  factors regarding the need for and success for a
  training program future company change such as
  job redesign or acquisition or new technology,
  management attitude toward job duties
• document analysis, interviews, questionnaires,
  job tests, observation
• task analysis
• identify the knowledge, skills, and behavior for
  successful task performance
• trainee analysis identifies
• prerequisite knowledge and skills to begin the
  training program
• demographics such as age, physical capabilities,
  primary language, and background
• attitudes toward training methods
• training needs analysis -- to determine the most
  appropriate performance improvement approach
  among task redesign, performance support, develop
  a training program
• Phase 2 Design and Development
• design concepts (cost/benefit analysis) ? project
  plan ? prototype for formative evaluation and
  usability testing ? full-scale development ?
  final usability test
• Phase 3 Program Evaluation
• what criteria to measure, when to measure the
  criteria, who (which trainee) to use in measuring
  the criteria, what context to use
• pretest-posttest experimental design, control
  group design

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19. Social Factors

• GROUPS AND TEAMS
• trend in organizational design
• flattening structures, decentralized decision
  making, use of groups and teams
• Characteristics of Groups and Teams
• organize every function into ten- to
  thirty-person, largely self-managing teams
• team characteristics
• the key to group performance communication
• crew a group of persons or team that manages
  some of technology usually in transportation
• Group Performance
• better at tasks than the average but not better
  than the best
• work productivity less than the sum of the
  individuals
• Team Performance
• selection of an appropriate combination of
  members
• four categories
• problems interfering with team performance
• taskwork skills
• teamwork skills cooperation, coordination,
  communication, adaptibility, giving/accepting
  suggestions or criticism, showing team spirit

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• factors to team performance
• no common mental model
• no time and cognitive resources to communicate
  plans and strategies
• no cognitive resources available to ask others
  for information
• Team Training
• acquisition of team work skills
• development and use of shared mental models
• strategies for effective communication,
  adaptation to stress, maintenance of situational
  awareness, group decision making, coordinated
  task performance
• job cross-training
• Team Instructional Prescriptions (TIP)
• COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE WORK
• Decision Making Using Groupware
• group communication support system
  teleconferencing, e-mail
• group decision support system
• Effects of Decision Support Systems
• increase group members depth of analysis, group
  communication and efforts to achieve
  clarification, member participation, the
  consensus building of group
• decrease the domination by a few people

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• Effects of Communication Support System
• increase the level of participation and effort
  expended by group members
• increase the depth of analysis
• decrease domination of the group by a few members
• increase decision times
• decrease overall cooperation and consensus
  building
• Computer-Supported Team Performance
• group-view displays
• provide a status overview
• direct personnel to additional information
• support collaboration among crew members
• support coordination of crew activities
• Difficulties in Remote Collaboration
• increased difficulty in collaboration knowing
  who is doing what
• increased difficulty in communication
• increased difficulty in maintaining situation
  awareness because of a decrease in communication

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• MACROERGONOMICS AND INDUSTRIAL INTERVENTION
• traditional ergonomics intervention in industry
  micoergonomics
• macroergonomics
• top-down sociotechnical systems approach to the
  design of organizations, work systems, jobs, and
  related human-machine, user-system, and
  human-environment interfaces
• participatory ergonomics
• employees know a great deal about their job and
  job environment
• employee and management ownership enhances
  program implementation
• end-user participation causes flexible problem
  solving
• ergonomic interventions -- organizational
  barriers
• promoting employee self-protective behavior
• use of individual or group incentives
• use of disciplinary actions
• fear messages
• behavior modeling of others
• employee surveys

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