Paradigms, Theory, and Social Research

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Chapter 2

• Paradigms, Theory, and Social Research

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Paradigms

• A model or framework for observation and
  understanding. It shapes what we see, and how we
  interpret it
• Paradigms underlie competing theories
• Example How should personal economic factors
  effect the creation of social policy?
• Paradigms are implicit, assumed, taken for
  granted
• Consider the paradigms of the East vs. West with
  regard to individualism, universalism,
  achievement, time, etc.

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Paradigms

• Consider postmodern vs. traditional view of
  reality
• Why consider paradigms?
• So we can step outside them, consider others
• So we can understand the views and behaviors of
  others
• Scientific paradigms resist change
• Example flat earth paradigm and the
  superiority of the West paradigm

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Paradigms

• Paradigms can vary in scope
• Macrotheories
• Focus on the large, aggregate entities
• Microtheories
• Focus on individuals and small groups
• The study of social science has a number of
  distinct paradigms as well

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Paradigms in Social Research

• Each defines the kind of observations made, facts
  discovered, conclusions
• Positivism (macro)
• Objective reality that can be observed by the
  five senses. Society can be studied
  scientifically
• Social Darwinism (macro)
• Survival of the fittest
• Society becomes fitter through experience

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Paradigms in Social Research

• Conflict paradigms (macro)
• Example Marxism Social dynamics are a function
  of the struggle between economic classes
• Symbolic Interactionism (micro)
• Studies individuals, dyads, small groups
• Cooleys Looking-Glass Self
• Meads taking the role of the other.
  Individuals reach understanding through the use
  of language and other symbolic systems

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Paradigms in Social Research

• Ethnomethodology
• We each create our own realities and social
  structures through our interactions with others
• We each struggle to make sense of our reality
• We can learn how others make sense of their world
  by challenging their expectations

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Paradigms in Social Research

• Structural Functionalism (Social Systems Theory)
• Social entities are like organisms, with
  functional parts that contribute to the whole
• Social Systems Theory examines those parts
  (roles)
• No attempt made to justify functional roles, just
  to study them

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Paradigms in Social Research

• Feminist Paradigms
• How do gender differences affect society and
  societal roles?
• Usually critical they challenge prevailing
  assumptions
• These paradigms are not mutually exclusive
• We dont have to pick one of these paradigms
• Each can be viewed as a tool

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Rational Objectivity

• Can the dynamics of social behaviors be
  understood objectively and rationally?
• Do rational principles rule social systems?
• If not, is nonrational behavior predictable?
• Is a subjective examination preferable?
• Humans seek agreement about reality
• Agreement can cause problems
• We see others reality through the filter of our
  reality

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Paradigms vs. Laws vs. Theories

• Theories are not paradigms, they specify
  paradigms. Theories are systematic explanations
  for observations
• Laws are not theories, laws are rules and facts
  about observed regularities they do not explain
• Theories explain by the use of concepts
• Abstract elements representing classes of
  phenomena
• These are the variables. Example juvenile
  delinquency
• Each variable has an assigned set of
  attributes (values)

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Theories and Hypotheses

• Theories are not hypotheses
• A hypothesis is a very specific, testable
  expectation that flows from a theory
• Research tests hypotheses directly
• Research tests theories indirectly through the
  use of hypotheses
• Traditional scientific inquiry involves three
  elements
• Theory (and subsequent hypotheses)
• Operationalization
• Observation

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Elements of the Model of Science

• Theory
• From which we derive testable hypotheses
• Operationalization
• Specific meaning assigned to all variables
• In hypothesis testing, the meaning of variables,
  even abstract variables, is only the operational
  definition. They must be precise
• Observation
• Data collection observing and making
  measurements to test a hypothesis (hypothesis
  testing)
• Must be capable of disconfirming the hypothesis

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Deductive vs. Inductive

• The preceding model assumes a deductive model
• An inductive approach is also valid
• Useful when you discover a relationship or
  pattern among variables before you have an
  explanation
• Start with the general area of interest
• Collect data, identify the common variables,
  define them (field research is a common approach)
• Clearly identify the differences and
  relationships between variables you find
• Derive a theoretical explanation that explains
  the research (grounded theory)

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Hypotheses

• A specific relationship or a specific expectation
  about two or more variables
• Be very clear
• Age is related to attitudes toward civil rights
• Too vague, not testable, virtual slam dunk
• Age is positively related to an adult
  participants self-reported support for increased
  rights for women in the workplace.
• Use variables, not attributes (no range)
• Null hypotheses are common (an expectation of no
  relationship or difference between variables)

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Theory Construction

• Determine a topic
• Determine to whom it applies (whom do you wish to
  generalize about?)
• Identify and define major concepts and variables
• Review the literature find out what others have
  discovered about your variables
• Use solid reasoning to form your argument
• State your theory succinctly

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Summary

• Deductive model uses research to test theories
• Explanation before data collection and analysis
• Traditional scientific method
• Inductive model develop theories from an
  analysis of data
• Data collection and analysis before the
  explanation
• These models are rarely used exclusively. Most
  research blends them