NURSING RESEARCH

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NURSING RESEARCH

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

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INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Qualitative research analysis of open-ended
  questions or naturalistic which involves the
  researcher going to a natural setting where the
  phenomenon being studied is taking place.
• Includes grounded theory, case study,
  ethnography, and phenomenology.
• All involve some means of doing content analysis
  on text.

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NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE

• Qualitative research is one way of obtaining
  answers to questions.
• The answers to the following questions guide our
  nursing practice by shaping how we see the world
  and our roles in it What is truth? What is
  authority? To whom do I listen? What counts as
  evidence for me? How do I know what I know?

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PHILOSOPHIES OF RESEARCH

• The word science means knowledge.
• The word philosophy means wisdom.
• All research is based on philosophical beliefs
  about the world world view or paradigm.
• The perceived view is the basis of naturalistic
  (qualitative) research the received view is the
  basis of empirical analytical (quantitative)
  research.

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PHILOSOPHIES OF RESEARCH

• Epistemology deals with what we know or the
  truth.
• Ontology the study of being or existence and
  its relationship to nonexistence.
• Context where something occurs.
• Comparison of basic beliefs of research paradigms
  (see handout).

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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• Empirical analytical a general label for
  quantitative research approaches that test
  hypotheses.
• Assumptions of contemporary empiricism The world
  is predictable The purpose of research is to
  develop the basis of nursing care Human
  responses to health and illness can be
  identified, measured, and understood.

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GROUNDED THEORY

• A research method designed to inductively develop
  a theory based on observations of the world of
  selected people.
• The purpose is to generate theory from data.
• Data are gathered through interviews and
  observations until data is saturated.

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CASE STUDY

• Involves an in depth description of essential
  dimensions and processes of the phenomenon being
  studied.
• It is the collection of detailed, relatively
  unstructured information from several sources
  usually including the reports of those being
  studied.

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CASE STUDY

• Has the following characteristics Investigates
  contemporary phenomenon within real life context
  Used when the boundaries between phenomenon and
  context are not clear Used when there are more
  features of interest (variables) than data
  points Use multiple sources of evidence and
  converge or triangulate data Data collection and
  analysis are guided by theory.

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ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

• Describes cognitive models or patterns of
  behavior of people within a culture.
• The following values underlie ethnography
  Culture is fundamental and includes
  behavioral/materialistic and cognitive
  perspectives Understanding culture requires a
  holistic perspective Context is important for
  understanding Aim is to combine the emic
  perspective (insiders world view) with the etic
  perspective (outsiders world view).

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PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH

• Used to answer the questions of meaning.
• Most useful when the task is to understand an
  experience as those having the experience
  understand it.
• Five important concepts or values Developed to
  understand meanings Based on a critique of
  positivism (received view) Object of study is
  the life-world or lived experience All share a
  common world Bracketing is used by researchers
  to put their own beliefs aside.

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MATCHING GOALS AND PHILOSOPHIES

• (See handout)
• Critiquing criteria (see handout)

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NURSING RESEARCH

• Qualitative Approaches to Research

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QUALITATIVE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

• Combine the scientific and artistic natures of
  nursing to enhance understanding of the human
  health experience.
• The researcher using this approach believes that
  humans attribute meaning to their experiences and
  experiences evolve from life context (the matrix
  of human-human-environment relationships emerging
  in day-to-day life).

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QUALITATIVE APPROACH AND NURSING SCIENCE

• Well-suited to the study of the human experience
  of health which is a central concern of nursing
  science.
• Used to guide nursing practice, contribute to
  instrument development, and develop nursing
  theory (see handout).

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FOUR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

• Five basic elements of research methods
• Identifying the phenomenon.
• Structuring the study.
• Gathering the data.
• Analyzing the data.
• Describing the findings.

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PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD

• A process of learning and constructing the
  meaning of human experience through intensive
  dialogue with persons who are living the
  experience.
• Goal is to understand the meaning of the
  experience as it is lived by the participant.

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PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD

• Identifying the phenomenon the researcher
  studies the lived experience or some dimension
  of day-to-day existence for a particular group of
  individuals.
• Structuring the study The researcher asks the
  question about an experience The researchers
  perspective is bracketed The sample is living
  or has lived the experience.

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PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD

• Data gathering Written or oral data may be
  collected through questionnaires or recordings
  until the data is saturated.
• Data analysis Steps include thorough reading
  of transcription identification of shifts in
  thought specification of significant phrases in
  thought segments identify central meaning of
  each segment group segments with similar
  meanings synthesize grouped segments for each
  participant.

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PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD

• Describing findings The researcher provides a
  path of information leading from the research
  question, through samples of participants words,
  researchers interpretations, and leading to the
  final synthesis that describes the lived
  experience as a narrative.

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GROUNDED THEORY METHOD

• An inductive approach involving a systematic set
  of procedures to arrive at theory about basic
  social processes.
• Aim is to discover underlying social forces that
  shape human behavior.

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GROUNDED THEORY METHOD

• Identifying the phenomenon The researcher
  investigates patterns of action and interaction
  between and among various types of social units.
• Structuring the study The research question
  will address a basic social process The
  researcher ensures that theory remains grounded
  in the data The sample needs to be experiencing
  the social process.

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GROUNDED THEORY METHOD

• Data gathering Data is collected through
  interviews and skilled observations of
  individuals interacting in a social setting.
• Data analysis Data collection and analysis
  occur simultaneously through open coding and
  the constant comparative method The process
  requires systematic, detailed record keeping
  using field notes and transcribed interview
  tapes Hunches about emerging patterns in the
  data are made directing activities in the field
  (theoretical sampling).

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GROUNDED THEORY METHOD

• Describing the findings Reported in sufficient
  detail to provide the reader with the steps in
  the process and the logic of the method.

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ETHNOGRAPHIC METHOD

• Focuses on the scientific description and
  interpretation of cultural or social groups and
  systems.
• The goal is to understand the natives view of
  their world or the emic view. This view is
  compared to the researchers or etic view through
  quantitative analysis of behavior.

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ETHNOGRAPHIC METHOD

• Identifying the phenomenon Varies in scope from
  a long-term study of a very complex culture to a
  short-term study of a phenomenon within subunits
  of cultures.
• Structuring the study Address questions that
  concern how culture knowledge, norms, values, and
  other contextual variables influence ones health
  experience The researcher brackets own beliefs
  Sample is a cultural group that is living the
  phenomenon.

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ETHNOGRAPHIC METHOD

• Data gathering Involves participant observation
  or immersion in the setting, informant
  interviews, and interpretation by the researcher
  of cultural patterns.
• Data analysis Data are collected and analyzed
  simultaneously Analysis begins with a search for
  domains or symbolic categories that include
  smaller categories Language is analyzed for
  semantic relationships and structural questions
  are formulated to expand and verify data.

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ETHNOGRAPHIC METHOD

• Describing the findings Three aspects of the
  process of transforming data into findings
  Description of a day in the life, a key event,
  or a story that captures the perspectives of
  group members Analysis of building taxonomies in
  search of patterned regularities Drawing
  inferences from the data to structure the study
  incorporating the ethnographers perspective.

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CASE STUDY

• Is about studying the peculiarities and the
  commonalities of a specific case.
• Can include quantitative and/or qualitative data.
• Intrinsic case study undertaken to have a
  better understanding of the case.
• Instrumental case study research that is done
  when the researcher is pursuing insight into an
  issue or wants to challenge some generalization.

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CASE STUDY

• Identifying the phenomenon Focus is on an
  individual, family, community, or organization
  and some complex phenomenon that demands close
  scrutiny for understanding.
• Structuring the study Questions are developed
  around issues that serve as a foundation to
  uncover complexity and pursue understanding The
  perspective of the researcher is reflected in the
  questions Samples range from the most common to
  the most unusual cases.

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CASE STUDY

• Data gathering data are gathered using
  interview, observation, document review, and any
  other methods that enable understanding of the
  complexity of the case.
• Data analysis/describing findings Analysis is
  tied to gathering and description of findings
  Findings are embedded in chronological
  development of the case, the researchers study
  of coming to know the case, one-by-one
  description of case dimensions, and vignettes
  that highlight case qualities.

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HISTORICAL RESEARCH

• A systematic approach for understanding the past
  though collection, organization, and critical
  appraisal of facts.
• Goal is to shed light on the past so that it can
  guide the present and the future.
• The question is embedded in the phenomenon to be
  studied The data sources are the sample.
• Primary and secondary sources of data are
  reviewed External and internal criticism of the
  authenticity and reliability of the data is
  performed.

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QUALITATIVE APPROACH NURSING METHODOLOGY

• Leininger (Culture Care), Parse (Human Becoming),
  and Newman (Health as Expanding Consciousness)
  have developed research methods specific to their
  theories.

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ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Ethics protection of human subjects.
• Naturalistic setting informed consent.
• Emergent nature of design ongoing negotiation
  of consent.
• Researcher-participant interaction may become
  therapeutic.
• Researcher as instrument bracketing.

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ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Credibility truth of findings as judged by
  participants and others within the discipline.
• Auditability accountability as judged by the
  adequacy of information leading the reader from
  the research question and raw data through
  various steps of analysis to the interpretation
  of findings.
• Fittingness faithfulness to everyday reality of
  the participants described in enough detail so
  others in the discipline can evaluate importance
  for their own practice, research, and theory
  development.

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ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Triangulation the expansion of research methods
  in a single study or multiple studies to enhance
  diversity, enrich understanding, and accomplish
  specific goals.
• Computer management of qualitative data three
  types include code and retrieve, theory builders,
  and conceptual network builders.

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Critiquing criteria (see handout)
• Evaluating qualitative research Chapter 8
• (to be discussed on 12/3).