Daily Life in Han China: Social Structure

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Kinship 1
• The patrilocal family (chia) was the basic
  social and economic unit of the pre-imperial Qin
  through the Han. Only patrilineal descent was
  recognized for kin purposes and Han distinguished
  between fathers relatives (the kin group known
  as tsung-tsu/tsu), mothers relatives, wifes
  relatives and relatives by marriage.
• Before Qin unified China, it had several laws
  regulating family living arrangements that both
  it and Han enforced and that are anti-Confucian
  (not part of Three Dynasties or Tang-Qing
  practice)
• Family units with more than one adult son in
  residence were double taxed adult males could
  not share rooms. The first limited family size
  and within prominent/wealthy families dispersed
  their potential to complete with the
  king/emperor the second required splitting
  inheritance and sending a second son away or
  selling the latter as a bonded servant (among
  poor).
• This created more individualism than is otherwise
  typical in China, including the idea of personal
  ownership it was rare to have more than two
  generations living together.
• The lineage (tsu) included all male descendants
  of the recognized common ancestor some males
  were necessarily closer to the main line/founder
  than others.
• Therefore, lineages organized into sub-units
  commonly but loosely organized into 5 degrees of
  mourning.
  
• Males in a lineage might number 50-100 (or more)
  200-500 people.
  
• A lineage might live in one locality but families
  were in separate residential units.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Kinship 2
• Inheritance of the property or titles of the dead
  took two forms 1) only one son of an emperor,
  king or marquis to inherit that title
  primogeniture was followed but this did not mean
  first son but it tended to mean first son of the
  principal wife (empress) but empresses could be
  dismissed and therefore the heir/son as well. If
  the empress had no son, then a son of an imperial
  concubine was selected (not necessarily by age).
  Any attempt at deviation met with at least
  criticism.
• Property/titles ought not to be split among heirs
  among the above however, if vast new territories
  were acquired, perhaps a king would be forced to
  split it among several sons, thereby posing less
  competition to the emperor.
• Principle of equal shares titles weren't split
  other kinds of property were among those without
  land or title (but who had rank).
  
• Women could not success to a title or family
  property she could receive a dowry that in a few
  cases was equal to what was to go to the son.
  
• Adoption was a way around a sub lineage/family
  line failing it was from within the lineage to
  assure that the ancestor would receive the
  sacrifice of the adoptee. There are examples of
  deviation (adopting a sisters son) but this was
  frowned upon (or illegal at times).

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Kinship 3
• Authority in family and lineage
• Father was the head/ruler of a family and
  typically was severe with sons and demanded
  respect
  
• Lineage head was no longer a status (it had been
  in Three Dynasties) but some sort of recognized
  authority was in place to mobilize for war, etc.
  
• Legal function of the family
• Father was the authority over even adult sons
  the family head assessed their worth (for tax
  purposes) and punishment for cheating was
  punished.
• Law demanded collective responsibility for
  producing the basic needs of the family (food,
  utensils, clothing, etc.) and for the behavior of
  an immed8iate family member (and collective
  punishment was a deterrent).
• Economic function of the family
• It was the productive unit and owned cattle, etc.
  in common they produced grains, vegetables,
  fruits, pigs and chickens, etc. and, if there
  were family servants/slaves, the latter made
  brooms, shoes, bows, etc. Women spun and sewed.
• Figuring out the division of labor in a large
  family with land was complicated two brothers
  might share the farming or one farmed and support
  the others studies (an official job would
  benefit all).
• Division along gender lines was clear.
• Sometimes relatives supported each other, sent
  food or money, etc. practiced charity.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Kinship 4
• Economic function of the family
• Socializing children (filial piety, brotherly
  love, moral integrity) educating them (in
  agriculture or the knowledge needed for social
  mobility even sending a son to the village
  school).
• Religious function of the family
• The dead relative was thought to require food and
  drink and therefore the sacrifices of family to
  their ancestors. There was usually an annual
  sacrifice in winter in which all family members
  participated and played roles. There were other
  spirits to whom families sacrificed individually
  there were few community activities,.
• Military function of the family
• Most had no such function in Han times however,
  some families and lineages did in times of war
  and disorder when government was ineffective.
  
• For a lineage to offer protection to its members
  means it had the numbers, the wealth to
  arm/defend itself.
  
• At times, such an armed lineage might ally itself
  with military leaders who aspeir3ed to power.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Marriage 1
• Age for marriage was in the teens, ideally, no
  later than 30 for a man and 20 for a woman.
  
• Marriage functioned to unite the two families,
  serve ancestral temples and maintain the
  patrilineal lineit was arranged by parents,
  sanctified by rites in the ancestral temples of
  both families, and status as daughter-in-law was
  more important than as wife.
• Prohibited approved marriage partners
• People of the same surname and/or partilineage
  could not marry.
  
• Cross-cousin marriage (mo-sis-y) was at times
  permitted and at time prohibited in Chinathe Han
  permitted it.
  
• Marriage between generations was permitted (it
  wasnt Tang-Qing).
  
• Divorce was permitted for disobedience to
  parents-in-law, barrenness, adultery, jealousy,
  incurable disease (preventing a women from her
  role in ancestor worship), gossip/discord, and
  theft (divorce of a woman by a man, that is).
• A woman could not be divorced if 1) she had worn
  3 yrs mourning for a parent-in-law, 2) she had
  not family to return to, or 3) if the marriage
  started out poor but over time family became
  wealthy.
• In Han examples, women did leave/divorce
  menimpermissible in later China (hubby was poor
  the husband of a princess was sick etc.).
  

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Marriage 2
• Remarriage was permitted and deemed proper after
  divorce and widowhood in both classes and
  regardless of wealth (later in China, a remarried
  woman was an object of disgrace). A divorcee
  married the heir apparent and became empress). A
  few women refused remarriage.
• Concubinage was approved and sanctioned by law
  and societybut could be afforded by only a small
  minority of men.
  
• Among the wealthy, multiple wives was a status
  symbol.
  
• Presumably, concubines came from families that
  couldnt support them or had been stolen or sold.
  However, we do of some from wealthy families as
  second (etc.) wives of high officials.
• Bigamy was prohibited in China.
• Women were socialized to not be jealousbut of
  course some did (and were divorced or,
  occasionally, cowed their husbands and kept
  concubines out of the house).
• Many a palace intrigue was fostered by ambitious
  concubines, insecure empresses, etc., often with
  the backing of their own families who sought
  power at court. Some kings had dozens or more
  women at court, some with sons whom they wished
  to promote over the empresses own sons.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Position of Women
• In the family women were expected to be humble
  and weakthe characteristics of yangfirst to
  father, then to husband, then to son upon
  widowhood.
• Of course, not all behaved ideally and there are
  examples of women of strong personality and
  extraordinary ability.
  
• Women were usually active only in domestic
  affairs (not politics) and the status of mother
  was a special one. While inferior to her
  husband, she still had authority over her
  childrenuntil widowhood when life was more
  complicated 1) a son was to obey his mother 2)
  a widow was to obey her son. It is believed that
  many Han women maintained their more dominant
  positions even over adult sons.
• In society commoner women did domest6ic work
  (spinning, weaving, cooking).
  
• Some were sole support of families (farming in
  the countryside weaving sandals in the capital)
  and generally poor some women from wealthier
  families engaged in trade that permitted them to
  interact with the upper class (pearl seller) one
  woman whose husband owned cinnabar mines in the
  SW was widowed and maintained the business with
  great success and acclaim.
• Occupations open to women included sorceress
  physician singing and dancing only that of
  physician had status.
  
• A few daughters of scholars were well educated
  and recognized in their own right but none was
  appointed to an official position at court.
  
• Political status for women was rare except
  through influence over husbands
  
• The rare casethe daughter of an emperor or king
  was of higher status than her husband and might
  reverse the usual pattern of interaction.
  
• If a woman entered the inner palace by marriage
  her status was superior to other family members.
  
  
• The Empress Dowager might influence her son on
  the throneE.D. Teng placed a baby on the throne,
  followed by a 10 year old and essentially acted
  as had of Han for many years through male
  officials from her family.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social Classes
• At the top of the social system was the emperor
  and the imperial family, followed by the nobles
  (imperial relatives, consort families and
  meritorious officials), then officials
  (non-nobles), and eunuchs.
• The masses belonged to the commoner class
  (scholars, farmers, artisans, merchants, and
  othersphysicians, occultists and alchemists,
  butchers and runners, in that order.
• Outside the system were guests (with their own
  occupation and 1) traveling between hosts 2)
  resident supported by a host) and a a bottom
  caste that either had a fixed or indefinite
  term of servitudethe latter had little/no hope
  of improving status.
• Law and custom ranked people within the classes,
  about as listed there was some permeability
  between classes and some opportunity to improve
  status within ones class.
• All were aware of their place in the hierarchy
  based on commonly accepted values
  (occupationphysical or mental education
  wealth, though it was often a consequence of
  status political power) that played out in life
  style and symbols of prestige.
• Prestige, wealth and power were the three
  dimensions of social stratification and social
  stratification accrued to the family (not
  individual).

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes A1 Emperor Imperial Family
• The emperor had no equal he was the source of
  all power the title means superiority over the
  Son of Heaven of earlier days.
  
• The new ideology of emperor was Son of Heaven
  appointed by decree of heaven and responsible
  only to heavenly authority.
  
• He used an exclusive term to refer to himself
  his name could never be spoken or written he
  could never be address directly.
  
• His lifestyle could not be emulated (he had
  special headgear, clothing, flags, carriages,
  colors, etc.).
  
• His word was law only he could promulgate or
  retract a law he could kill a person he
  appointed all high officials he ennobled his
  family and certain high officials he was the
  high priest for the empire.
• Imperial relatives were next
• Empress dowager, by generation, since there could
  be more than one
  
• empress over the imperial concubines, although
  her position could be precarious, and then
  concubines based on their ranks in a system
  parallel to that for officials (and status also
  parallel).
• Empresses could be formidable and engaged in
  intrigues that eliminate sons of rivals, etc.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social class A2 Nobles
• This group included imperial relatives, the
  consort families and the meritorious officials.
  
• In Early Han, the number of kingdoms and
  marquisates in the empire increased, in the hands
  of the emperors sons (kings), brothers, paternal
  cousins, brothers sons and a few others
  (marquisates).
• Over time the power of kings dwindled but their
  status remained high.
  
• The selected heir was oldest son of the chosen
  legal wife/empress.
  
• Consort families (of the other wives/concubines)
  ranked next. All wives of the emperor married up
  so all their families gained status.
  
• In early Han, only 5 families of consorts were
  already prominent. The first empress was in fact
  a commoner by birth.
  
• Later, there was a tendency to marry the
  daughters of prominent families (e.g., take as
  concubines).
  
• The consort family was ennobled, bringing it
  prestige and wealth.
  
• Consort families gained political power through
  official appointments (fathers, brothers), often
  as generals and sometimes as lead minister.
  
• At first meritorious officials gained their ranks
  (even as kings) through prowess, often military
  soon, however, the emperors decreed that they
  could no longer be appointed kings the highest
  title a meritorious official could attain is that
  of marquise.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes A3 Officials 1
• Status of an official, who ranked next to nobles,
  depended on his rank in the bureaucracy (these
  werent ennobled people), starting with A group
  of 3 supreme lords, 3 ducal ministers
  including the imperial chancellor who was the
  highest ranking person next to the emperor in
  Early Han, and grand general well below were a
  group of officials including chancellors of
  kingdoms, etc. Relations among them and the
  emperor were literally choreographed (who
  saluted, who stood, etc.).
• Political status superceded family status
  (younger brother imperial chancellor ranking
  above his older brother).
  
• Families of the highest rank tended to
  intermarry.
  
• All had prescribed behaviors toward each other
  and toward the highest officials.
  
• Officialdom had social status much superior to
  most non-officials (life style, material goods,
  etc. distinguished them at all times).
  
• Any rise in official rank meant a change in
  relations with colleagues, family, etc.
  
• There was little social communication with
  commoners and the later were humble and painfully
  subservient.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes A3 Officials 2
• Wealth included salary and living conditions
  (more for higher ranks) and in theory rank
  related to merit (virtue, ability) hence, low
  rank reflected on those same characteristics.
• Rank was equated with picul from about
  4,200-192/yr., the latter slightly above what an
  average farmer could make but was adequate for a
  comfortable life-style.
• Officialdom meant wealth to a family, even just
  starting out in the ranks. Add to that rations,
  clothing, gifts, etc. and both status and actual
  wealth increased.
• The top few were ennobled with land and
  accompanying households from whom he collected
  taxes and retained a portion.
  
• Most invested their wealth in land (with houses
  and workers), the most secure investment one
  could make and pass on, a few in businesses and
  handicrafts for additional profit.
• Privileges included a monopoly of certain
  material goods (granted by law), rights of
  children to enter officialdom, etc.
  
• Arrest (and sentence) required the emperors
  permission below a certain rank they could, like
  commoners, be bound or tortured suicide was
  institutionalized (in lieu of execution).

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes A4 Eunuchs
• Social status for eunuchs was complicated
  humiliated in his own eyes and those of others
  because of castration also a means of social
  mobility--bringing wealth and power.
• There were high ranking and ordinary eunuchs,
  therefore, with the lowliest relegated to
  domestic services while the highest supervised
  imperial parks, palace sacrifices or even
  attended the emperor.
• Eunuch bureaucratic hierarchy was officially
  recognized and institutionalized (e.g., ranked
  from 100-2000 piculs).
  
• A few were ennobled.
• Many sought to be adopted as sons of eunuchs
  because they could inherit his noble title.
  
• By Late Han the wealth, power and status of
  eunuchs was higher than earlier and it is claimed
  that some men castrated themselves and their sons
  in order to become eunuchs.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes B1 Commoners
• Commoners were ranked 1) scholars 2) farmers 3)
  4) artisans and merchants, usually in that
  order and inferior to scholars and farmers.
  
• Scholars, a recognized rank, included officials
  and commoner-scholars-in-training but well focus
  on those not yet in service.
  
• They ranked high because of their mental rather
  than physical laborknowing the classics made
  them potential officials.
  
• Scholars were highly respected and given
  opportunities to move up the in the class
  structure through official appointment. A few
  reached the very top.
• Most civil servants were recruited from top
  students in the Imperial Academy, from those
  recommended by others, from among established
  scholar-teachers, and by direct application to
  the emperor. All went through written and oral
  examinations.
• Recognized as scholars were professional
  teachers, men at the Academy, in commandery
  schools or with professional teachers, and the
  self-taught.
• Tuition was paid in cash or work in the case of
  very poor. Thus a private scholar- teacher could
  be well off. A poor student could attain high
  office.
• In Early Han the Imperial Academy had a few
  hundred and Late Han thousands of students, most
  only part-time because of tuition.
  
• For the poor, work-study options ranked from
  farming on down--poverty and humble occupations
  did not hinder scholarly (except for sorcery and
  trading).

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes B2 Farmers
• Abolition of the benefice land system and the
  introduction of private land, adopted by Qin and
  maintained by Han led to drastic changes in the
  life of the farmer.
• Much earlier, lords administered land and gave
  protection and support for the farming families
  in return for work now land could be bought and
  sold and it fell into the hands of the wealthy
  rather than the farmer.
• The landless became tenants on land, often small
  parcels, owned by others who invested in
  agriculture and werent into politics and
  commerce (weve already talked about the nobles
  and officials whose status derived from other
  than land ownership).
• There were major differences in status and
  standing of land owners (between big and small),
  tenants and wage laborers.
  
• Small landholding farmers were often under stress
  to support their families on agriculture, going
  into debt and having to sell out if there was a
  bad season.
• Tenants paid 50 of their harvest in taxes and
  were of lower status than land owning farmers
  wage laborers were lower still because jobs
  werent secure.
• In reality, few farmers attained jobs as
  officials because they couldnt afford the cost
  of becoming educated.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes B3 Artisans
• Artisan life is not known beyond a few scraps of
  information. Regarding artisans--
  
• Their economic position was somewhere between
  that of farmers and merchants (that is, they made
  more money than most farmers but less than many
  merchants).
• Their legal position was somewhat more favorable
  than merchantsthey could wear silk, ride horses
  and ride in carriages.
  
• They included painters, men who made knives and
  swords, etc., and at least one became quite
  well-to-do. We simply dont have records of all
  the likely work they performed.
• They were not legally barred from officialdom
  (until after Han) so had more social mobility
  than merchants during Han.
  
• Their social status just might have been superior
  to farmers (if the artisan was wealthy) and near
  that of merchants.
  
• Note that merchant status appears to have become
  diminished under Qin and Han.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes B4 Merchants
• Merchants are defined as including traders and
  shopkeepers, those engaged in mining iron and
  cinnabar, salt manufacturing, cattle and pig
  breeding, raising fish, manufacturing, and
  money-lending.
• Often a person had more than one occupation
  (farming and trade, etc.).
  
• Some invested their money in land until land they
  were prohibited by law from doing so 100 years
  into the Han rule.
  
• Wealthy merchants usually had higher economic
  status than other commoners but there were many
  poor peddlers and shopkeepers about whom we know
  little. We read about the merchants who became
  wealthy, enjoyed material luxury, and even
  courted friendships with their social superiors
  in the government.
• Discrimination against merchants seems to begin
  with Early Han (e.g., late Zhou documents
  indicate a number of high status and with
  political power--Han barred from wearing certain
  cloth, carrying weapons, or riding horses and
  eventually blocked opportunities for social
  mobility by barring merchants from official
  office.
• Their circumstances did shift with the overall
  national situation (in times of un-rest
  restrictions were eased, for example) but for the
  most part merchant social status was low (e.g.,
  general attitude was negative) great wealth
  could overcame much, however.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes B4 Other occupations
• There were different kinds of prestige associated
  with different occupations (some perceived as
  humble and their practitioners given a lower
  status) and reinforced by attitudes.
• Physicians could make a good living and evidently
  could enter into an official career at the same
  time, their status was below that of officials
  and scholars.
• Veterinarians were of lower status, still, but
  not prevented from politics.
  
• Occultists were common because the people sought
  them for their alchemy and communication with
  immortals. Some were in government, assisting
  with sacrifices, and the occasional one did very
  well, indeed, reaching a high post and marrying a
  princess!
• Their status at court diminished in Late Han
  though their popularity continued among the
  people.
  
• Diviners and physiognomists also practiced during
  Han and writings on the occult arts (astrology
  and other kinds of divination) were popular.
  
• Scholars who were interested in divination did
  enter officialdom and their status ws higher than
  that of professional diviners (non-scholars).
  
• Shamans (males females) formed an occupational
  groupthey used incantations, etc. in curing (and
  in black magicsorcery was an unfavored
  occupation).
• Butchers were humble (low status) but some
  families rose through military service and girls
  who were favorites at court.
  
• Government runner was also a humble job.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes C Outside the Class Structure 1
  Guests
  
• This category included men with their own
  occupation and family who visited the host (were
  received and entertained there) and those who
  remained at the house of the host and were
  supported there.
• The practice of keeping guests dated to Late
  Zhou and could have been a symbol of status (all
  those hangers-on like a rap stars entourage).
  Discriminating wealthy housed scholars (who did
  scholarly work) the less discriminating might
  take on a crook or two. Han guests were less
  numerous (100s) than Zhou (1000s).
• Guest obligations were vague but one did what one
  was told, even dangerous missions (raiding, debt
  collecting, etc.). Some guests were probably
  part of a personal bodyguard/troops (again,
  especially in troubled times).
• Amazing, perhaps, the social status of guests was
  not inferiorand in true Chinese fashion, their
  status was graded (three levels of housing, three
  grades of seating at meals, etc.). Early Han
  treated all guests politely.
• Guests could come and go (and attach to another
  wealthy host) in Early Han the trend later was
  for guests to be more permanently attached and
  engaged in agriculture, guarding, etc. Also,
  some were treated more poorly earlier and some
  became wage earning servants.
• Government policy was one of non-interference as
  long as law was kept. The potential threat of
  large private army led to occasional crack-downs
  on maintaining large numbers of guests.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes C Outside the Class Structure 2
  Slaves
  
• This group was at the bottom of Han social strata
  whose social and legal status were inferior
  (codified by dress and decoration, endogamy,
  etc.caste is perhaps the best description for
  them).
• Domestic outnumbered foreign slaves.
• Criminals might receive terms of servitude
  families of serious criminals (men who rebelled,
  counterfeiters) could be enslaved as part of the
  Han practice of collective responsibility.
• In bad times, family members cold be sold (a
  contractual arrangement) free people might also
  be kidnapped and sold.
  
• Though the Han were constantly at war against the
  N and NW barbarians, few captives became slaves.
  A few staves trickled in as foreign tribute.
  Some were captured from among aboriginal groups
  in the SW.
• There were government and private slaves during
  Han and their treatment in law and practice was
  as inferiors however, over 400 years of Han
  their treatment wasnt uniform by government or
  private owners.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes C Outside the Class Structure 2
  Slaves
  
• Government Slaves
• There were 100,000 slaves in 44 BCaccording to
  the one and only figure we have. If true, then
  only 0.2 of the population but still a major
  cost to feed, clothe, house and organize.
• A third of them looked after government horses
  along the borders.
  
• Some raised dog, horses, birds, etc. in
  government parks.
  
• Some served in the palace and government bureaus
  as maids, wet nurses, clerks, doormen, etc. None
  served in the government mines although it is
  recorded that 100,000 convicts were. None served
  as corvee laborers on government projects.
• All were distinguished by their clothing and
  engaged in what in those days was considered
  (perhaps necessary but) unproductive laborand
  a burden on government and commoner (tax payer)
  alike).
• It is unclear why the government would maintain
  so many slaves during fiscally constrained times,
  but they did. Obviously, there is much more to
  understand about the category of people.

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Daily Life in Han China Social Structure

• Social classes C Outside the Class Structure 2
  Slaves
  
• Private Slaves
• Private slaves were owned by nobles and officials
  who bought or were granted them in numbers a few
  commoners owned slaves--in the case of rich
  merchants this could be several hundred.
• Slaves were legally un-free and were owned as
  property as were their children however, one
  could not murder a slave and go unpunished.
  
• Mobility among slaves was slight (though court
  slaves were well off and menials not) though they
  werent legally barred from officialdom or being
  concubines (and all that entails in family
  mobility). It was a rare occurrence.
• Government tried (unsuccessfully) to regulate the
  number a person could own based on the owners
  status.
  
• Industry and business moguls owned many slaves
  and used them in fishing, salt production, iron
  mines, etc.
  
• Large landowners probably engaged some slaves in
  working his land, weaving, tending orchards,
  harvesting, etc., but it is thought that their
  role was minor compared to tenant farmers.
• A few slaves produced household goods for family
  consumption, we know we also know that in a few
  wealthy (noble) houses, many slaves might produce
  goods for sale.
• Some male slaves served as bodyguards and
  retainers.
  
• Wealthy families kept male and female slaves who
  were musicians, singers and dancers (these would
  have been trained in their youth and sold).
  
• Individuals could be freed by their owners and on
  rare occasions a group might be freed universal
  manumission was rare.