The SerengetiMara Ecosystem

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The Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem
http//www.travel.neunerweb.de/tanzania1.htm
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Serengeti-Mara Boundaries

• 25 000 km2 area
• Spans across Kenya and Tanzania
• Contains many protected areas and national parks.

Figure 1. The Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem showing
location of protected areas. (Thirgood et al.
2004)
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History
http//www.fisherkids.net/photo.htm

• Timeline
• 1929? 1951? 1959, 1965?
• game reserve Serengeti National land
  increments added
• established Park (SNP) created to SNP
• 2 300 km2
• 1972? 1977-1986? 1975-1995?
• SNP proposed as Border between Kenya 15
  human population
• a World Heritage Site Tanzania closed
  increase per year

http//gorp.away.com/gorp/location/africa/tanzania
/map_ser.htm
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Climate

• Consists of
• Wet Season
• December thru June
• Dry Season
• July thru November
• Mean Temperature
• 27-28 oC

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ia-Tree-Kenya-Posters_i1002832_.htm
http//www.ecoworld.com/home/articles2.cfm?tid387
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Managing Herbivores

• The number of Herbivores
• Encompass managing overabundant populations and
  remnant populations
• Densities of herbivores
• Where they live
• Habitat stability and range
• What they eat
• Quality of forage, competition between species
• Long-term trends
• Stochastic events

http//www.hedweb.com/animimag/elepeat.htm
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• The wildebeest migration

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/14
http//www.awf.org/section/gallery?heartlands1282
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Managing Herbivores

• The number of Herbivores
• Encompass managing overabundant populations and
  remnant populations
• Densities of herbivores
• Where they live
• Habitat stability and range
• What they eat
• Quality of forage, competition between species
• Long-term trends
• Stochastic events

http//www.hedweb.com/animimag/elepeat.htm
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... A Dynamic Ecosystem
http//www.worldbotanical.com/african_plants.htm
http//www.walkandtravel.com/gallery/?id103
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Fire

• Ability to revert to woodland
• Recruitment of seedlings
• Available nutrients
• Eventual germination rates

http//home.intekom.com/ecotravel/plant-kingdom/gr
asses/grasslands.htm
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Herbivory

• frequency of fire with wildebeest grazing
• due to in available biomass for burning
• resulting in a in woodland recovery.
• Selective herbivores
• palatable unpalatable
• General herbivores
• maintain quality and palatability

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Figure 2. The Interacting Roles of Fire and
Herbivory (Anderson et al. 2007)
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Functional Interactions

• Moisture Fluctuations variations in vegetation
  productivity
• DOUBLE the number of ungulates of other
  geological regions in the world
• Diversity of Vegetation STABILIZES community
  functional properties
• Relationship between plant and animal diversity

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Main Migratory Ungulates
Wildebeest
Thomsons Gazelle
Plains Zebra
(Estes 2006)
http//www.wallpaperbase.com/wallpapers/animals/ze
bras/zebra_1.jpg
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Figure 3. Resource Partitioning (Gwynne and Bell
1968)
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Non-Migratory Ungulates
http//www.ultimateungulate.com/Images/Damaliscus_
lunatus/D_lunatus3.html
http//www.wainscoat.com/kenya/samburu.html
Topi
Impala
African Buffalo
http//www.ultimateungulate.com/Images/Syncerus_ca
ffer/S_caffer1.html
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Non-Migratory Ungulates

• Ranges overlap extensively
• Separated by habitat preferences
• overlap in dry season due to increased
  competition

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Migratory and Non-Migratory

• Competition between them
• Grazing sequence in dry season
• Buffalo
• Zebra
• Topi
• Wildebeest

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Functional Interactions

• Driven by predator stress
• Resource Availability predator influences
• Predation has little effect on migratory ungulates

http//www.greglasley.net/Images/Blue-Wildebeest-0
007.jpg
http//www.africa.upenn.edu/Wildlife_GIFS/Zebras_S
triped_13286.gif
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Dominant Process Competition

• Large foraging ranges
• Migrating long distances
• Grazing Succession
• Smaller herbivores use short grasses first
• Larger herbivores use long grasses first

Help gain advantage over competition
Resource partitioning
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Genetic Management

• in genetic diversity over time
• ... leads to...
• in ability to adapt to the future

SMALL POPULATIONS
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Small Population Problems...

• Harmful mutations

• Genetic drift

• Inbreeding depression

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Populations
Small enough...
Large enough...
To maintain genetic integrity
To sustain resources of the land
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Small Populations

• Translocation
• Captive Populations

http//www.adliterate.com/archives/blackrhino.jpg
Black Rhinoceros
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Large Populations
Increased genetic variation
Wildebeest
http//www.uniquesafaris.com/images/animals/misc/m
illionwildebeast.jpg
http//www.billybear4kids.com/animal/whose-toes/Wi
ldebeest.jpg
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Protected Areas...

• Genetic refuges
• Decrease in allele frequencies

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Predators
The Main Predators
CHEETAH
LEOPARD
WILD DOG
HYENA
LION
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The Most Influential
Lion Hyena
http//www.birdsasart.com/hyena20head.jpg
http//www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/new
s/news.html?in_article_id392292in_page_id1766i
n_a_sourceito1490
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Predators
Predators

• Diet
• migratory and resident species
• Face
• Prosecution by local people (poisoning, shot,
  trapped)
• Diseases caused by domesticated animals

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Diseases
Herpesviruses (especially in Equines)
Bovine tuberculosis
http//www.afbini.gov.uk/index/services/diagnostic
/adds/electron-micrographs-vsd/electron-micrograph
-herpesvirus.htm

• Rinderpest

http//www.michigan.gov/images/deerablymphnodes_74
464_7.jpg
http//www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/diseases/images/v2
/rind1a.jpg
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Rinderpest

• In the past was responsible for vast population
  declines
• Control is extremely dependent on vaccination

• Currently NOT
• found in ecosystem

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Control is

• difficult with migratory species
• done through the vaccination of domestic animals
• achieved through continual monitoring

http//ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/
lyme_vaccine/syringe.jpg
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Protected Areas
Figure 1. Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem (Thirgood et
al. 2004)
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Integrating Parks

• Serengeti National Park
• Ngorongoro Conservation area
• Maswa Game Reserve

World Heritage Sites
Serengeti- Ngorongoro Biosphere Reserve
Protective Measure Integrated Conservation and
Development Projects
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Serengeti Management Plan
(Tanzania National Parks 2005)

• Policies to address population and Habitat issues
• Policy to spread out activities
• Push to revive community based programs
• Anti- poaching procedures

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Strategies

• Proposed Wildlife Management Areas
• (community-based)
• Implemented Serengeti Regional Conservation
  Strategy

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Management Challenges

• Large ecosystem
• High diversity of ungulates and carnivores
• Resource competition between human and animal
  populations

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Human Populations

• Poverty
• Lack of public education
• Domestic animals
• Lack of constant governmental authority, and
  civil wars
• Increased wildlife-human interactions
• Land use Changes

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Poaching

• Detrimental effects on small populations
• Harvested for meat, and skins
• Level of protection differs in each protected
  area

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Stochastic events
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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 1)
• Problem Poaching
• Goal reduce illegal harvest
• Measurable Indicators
• Monitoring
• Records of poaching fines and violations

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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 2)
• Problem Small population sizes of some species
• Goal To establish and maintain at least the
  minimum viable population with appropriate
  genetic variability.
• Measurable Indicators
• Monitoring
• Captive breeding programs

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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 3)
• Problem Land use conflicts
• Goal Minimize the conflict between native animal
  and human populations, minimize impact to
  migration patterns
• Measurable Indicators
• Determine current migrating and land requirements
• Surveying locals
• Use deterrents such as electric fences
• Compare complaints records from locals
• Community based programs

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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 4)
• Problem Inconsistent government control, two
  different countries
• Goal Standardized management plans that go
  through one governing body
• Measurable Indicators
• Integrate plans for each area
• Have common goals
• Cooperative management

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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 5)
• Problem Disease
• Goal Monitor disease levels
• Measurable Indicators
• Quantity of communities that partake in
  vaccination programs for domestic animals
• Disease monitoring

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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 6)
• Problem Persecution of problem animals
• Goal Encourage non-lethal predator management,
  encourage predator watch programs
• Measurable Indicators
• Predator populations
• Monitor deliberate human caused deaths

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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 7)
• Problem Man-made fire frequency
• Goal Appropriate seasonality of fires that are
  set for land clearing
• Measurable Indicators
• Long term monitoring of woodland to grassland
  dynamic shifts
• Maintaining Wildebeest populations
• Participation in public education programmes

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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 8)
• Problem Quality of water for wildlife
• Goal Increase the quality of water for wildlife,
  more regulations on water pollution
• Measurable Indicators
• Water quality testing

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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 9)
• Problem Local Human Population conflicts with
  ungulates
• Goal Encourage community-based programs,
  increase public understanding and education
• Measurable Indicators
• Success of community-based programs
• Decline in the amount of poaching
• Participation in public education campaigns

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Management Objectives and Strategies

• 10)
• Problem Sustainable integrity
• Goal Maintain integrity of the ecosystem
• Measurable Indicators
• Integrity Indicators
• Tracking seasonal migratory movements
• Breaking down of traditional routes and rates
• Monitor population size
• Monitor seasonal rainfall patterns and trends
• Monitor fire patterns and refuge areas for
  wildlife
• Monitor water quality

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Conclusions
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hoto37561.htm
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• Thank You!
• Any Questions??

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an20Sunset.JPG