Paternalism

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???ste?d?? ?. ?at???
??µ???? ?ate??a??sµ??, ??????????t?ta ?a?
G??st???? ?e?????sµ??
Seµ?????? ??d??? T?µata ????t????
F???s?f?a? 16/3/2006
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?ate??a??sµ??(Paternalism)

• ? ap??s???t? p??stas?a p?? ßas??eta? st?
  e?d?af???? ??a t? ??? ?a? t?? ep?????? e??? ?????
  a????p??

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??µ???? ?ate??a??sµ??(Legal Paternalism)

• ? ??µ???? pate??a??sµ?? s???de?eta? ap? t??
  ape??? ?s??s?? ß?a? e? µ????? t?? a?µ?d???
  ??at???? ???????

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??µ???? ?????sµ??(legal moralism)

• ?e? ??e? s??p? ?a p??state?se? t? ?t?µ? (?p?? ?
  pate??a??sµ??), a??? t?? ????????? (t? s?µßat???)
  ?????.
• ?? 178 ???a??p?a??a p?? a?t?ßa??e? sta ???st?
  ??? e??a? ?????

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? p??sß??? t?? ?????? a?t???µ?a?

• ???sß?????? ?a? ?? d?? t?? ?d?a t?? ??????
  a?t???µ?a? t?? p??s?p?? (moral autonomy) ?
  ?????p?? p??pe? ?a d?aµ??f??e? t? s?µpe??f??? t??
  µe ß?s? t?? ???s? t?? ?a? t? s??e?d?s? t?? ?a?
  ??? ?pe?ta ap? e??te???? e?a?a??asµ? p??e???µe??
  ap? t? d??a?? ?a? t?? ????????? ?????
  (self-ownership)

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Joseph Raz

• ?a a?t???µa ?t?µa e??a? e?e??a p?? µp????? ?a
  d?aµ??f?s??? t? ??? t??? ?a? ?a ?a????s??? t??
  p??e?a t??, e??a? d?µ??????? t?? d???? t???
  ?????? ??sµ??

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??af????

• ??µ???? ?ate??a??sµ??
• ???sµ??e? f???? de? p??sß???e? t?? ?????
  a?t???µ?a
• ?? ????t?? e??a? s???? a?t????st???
• St???? ? ap?f??? ß??ß??

• ??µ???? ?????sµ??
• ???t?te p??sß???e? t?? ????? a?t???µ?a
• ?? ????t?? e??a? ? apa??a ??a ??p??e? p???e??
• ?d??f??? ? ß??ß? ? ? ?f??e?a

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?? ?a ?p?st?????

• ? ?ate??a??sµ?? st????eta? se sa???? ß?se??, se
  µ?a a?t????? ??a t?? a????p??? s?µpe??f??? p??
  e??a? ?a??asµ??? p????? ?????p?? de? e??a?
  ??a??? ?a ?aµß????? t?? ????? ap?f?se?? se
  s?µa?t????? t?µe?? t?? ???? t???

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?? e??t?µa(p?? ??te? ? pate??a??sµ??)

• e?? µp??e?? ?a p??stat??e?? t??? a????p??? ap? t?
  ?a ß?????? t?? ?d?? t??? t?? ea?t?, ??at? ?a µ??
  t? ???e??

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Te???a t?? ??????????? ep??????

• ?e?t???? ?p??es? ? ?????????? s?µpe??f??? ??
  ?????p?? d???? ?ata???? ??????????, ep??e????? ?a
  ep?t????? µe pe?????sµ??a µ?sa t?? ?a??te??
  d??at? ??a??p???s? t?? ep???µ??? t???.
• ?e? e?et??eta? ? p???t?ta ? t? ?????? t??
  a????p???? ep???µ??? (?? p??t?µ?se?? e??a?
  ded?µ??e?)

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Te???a t?? ??????????? ep??????

• ?ed?µ???? t?? ep???µ??? t???, ta ?t?µa ?a ??????
  ?,t? ??e???eta? ??a ?a ep?t????? t??? st?????
  t??? µe t?? p???? ap?te?esµat??? t??p?, ?p?? ta
  ?d?a t?? a?t??aµß????ta?
• ?a ?t?µa ????????? ?a??te?a ap? ???e ????? t?
  s?µf???? t???
• ???µa ?a? ?ta? de? f????ta? ap???ta ??????????,
  a??µa ?a? t?te µ??? a?t? ????? t?? apa?a?t?t?
  p????f???s? ??a ?a ?????? t?? s?st?? ep?????? ?a?
  ?a p?a?µat?s??? t??? st????? t???

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?????aµµa ?µ???a?

• 1. ?a???s?as? t?? s???t?s?? sta p?a?s?a t??
  ?????? ?a? t?? p???t???? f???s?f?a?, a??? ?a? t??
  f???s?f?a? t?? d??a???
• 2. ?a???s?as? ?a? ???t??? t?? ep??e???µ?t?? t??
  s?µpe??f?????? ??????µ???? (behavioral
  economics) ? ??µ???? pate??a??sµ?? e??a?
  a?a??a??? e?a?t?a? t?? a????p???? ???st????
  pe?????sµ?? (cognitive limitations)

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???t??

• ? ??µ??, ? ap??? ?a??, de? ??e? t? d??a??µa t??
  a?t??a????sµ??, de? e??a? e?e??e??? ?a ???e? ????
• ?? F??a?e? ap?te???? µ?a µ???? e??t, ?d?a?te?a
  p?????sµ???, ? ?p??a ep????eta? ?a ??ße???se?
  t??? p??????

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???sµ?? ?ate??a??sµ??(Gerald Dworkin, 1999)

• ? P d?a pate??a??st??? ap??a?t? st?? Q ef?s??
• ? P e?e??e? µe s??p? ?a p??state?se? t?? Q ap?
  ??t? ?a?? ? ?a t?? ß????se? ?a pet??e? ??t? ?a??.
• ? P e?e??e? e???t?a st?? (? ad?af????ta? ??a t??)
  pa???se? p??t?µ?se??, ep???µ?e? ? a??e? t?? Q.
• ?? p???e?? t?? P pe????????? t?? a?t???µ?a ? t??
  e?e??e??a t?? Q.
• ? pate??a??st??? pa??µßas? e??a? µ?a pa??µßas?
  st?? e?e??e??a d??s?? e??? p??s?p?? p??
  d??a?????e?ta? ap? ?????? p?? ????? ?a ??????
  ap???e?st??? µe t?? e??µe??a, t? ?a??, t??
  e?t???a, t?? a????e?, ta s?µf????ta ? t?? a??e?
  t?? p??s?p?? p?? ?atap???eta?

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?a e?d? t?? ?ate??a??sµ??

• ?s????? (hard, strong) pate??a??sµ??
• ?p??? (soft, weak) pate??a??sµ??

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?s????? ?ate??a??sµ??

• ?? a?t??e?µe?? t?? pate??a??sµ?? d?a µe t? ????s?
  t??
• ?e? ????µe ???? ?a aµf?ß?????µe ??a t?? ????
  ???s? t??, t?? ??a??t?t?? t?? ? t?? p????f???s?
  p?? d?a??te?
• ?a???a?t?, ? pate??a??st?? ?e??e? p?? p??pe? ?a
  ep?µße? st?? ep?????? t??

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?p??? ?ate??a??sµ??

• ?? ?t?µ? d?a pa?? t? ????s? t?? (? ?ts? ?e??e? ?
  pate??a??st??)
• ??af??? µe ?e?d?-pate??a??sµ? (de? ?s????? ?? d??
  te?e?ta?e? s?????e?)
• ??s???? ? d?????s? (p?a?µat??? ????s?)

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?p??? ?ate??a??sµ??

• ??? ? f???s?f??? s???t?s? e?a?t?e?ta? st?? ???sµ?
  ?a? st? d??a??????s? t?? ?p??? ?ate??a??sµ??
• ?? ßas??? ep??e???µa e??a? p?? ???sµ??e? f???? ?
  e?e??e??a ?a p??pe? ?a pe?????ste? p??? ????? t??
  e??µe??a?

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H.L. Hart (1963)

• ? f??e?e??e?? a??? t?? ?a µa?a????µe ap? ta ????
  µa? ?ata???e? ?ta? de? ?p???e? ep?st??f?
• s?µßas? d???e?a?
• ???s? ?a???t????
• e??a?as?a

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William Connolly (1974)

• ?a s?µf????ta e??? at?µ?? de? s?µp?pt??? p??ta µe
  ta e?d?af????t? t??, d??ad? t?? p??t?µ?se?? t??
• ? p???t??? ? e??a? pe??ss?te?? s?µf????sa ??a t??
  ? ap? t?? p???t??? ? ?p? t?? ?????a p?? e?? ? ?
  e??e t? d??at?t?ta ?a t?? ß??se? ?a? t?? d??, ?a
  d???e?e ??a t?? ea?t? t?? t?? ?

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???t???

• ?p??e?µe??st??? s??p?? t?? s?µf????t?? p??
  ap?fe??e? t?? ???t??? ?at? t?? e??t?sµ?? ?a? t??
  p?a??a??? ?fe??µ?sµ?? e?s????ta? µ?a ?????a
  ?p??et???? s??a??es??.
• ?ed?µ???? ?t? ? ? p??pe? ?a ap?fas?se? p??? t??
  eµpe???a (??a µe pe?????sµ??? p????f???s?) µp??e?
  ?a ???e? ?????. ????? ?µ?? µp??e? ?a p??ß???e? t?
  d??? t?? eµpe???a ??a ?a t?? p??f????e?
• ? ? ??e? ?a ??ße? st? ??? t?? e?at?µµ???a
  ap?f?se??. St?? pe??ss?te?e? pe??pt?se?? ?a ??e?
  ?a? p??? ate?? p????f???s? ?a? se p????? ap?
  a?t?? a?a??ast??? ?a ep????e? ?????. ?? ?t? ??
  p??t?µ?se?? t?? ?a? ta e?d?af????t? t?? de?
  s?µp?pt??? µe ta p?a?µat??? t?? s?µf????ta, p????
  ?a µa? t? pe? e? t?? p??t????

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Gerald Dworkin (1972)

• ? ?p??? pate??a??sµ?? ßas??eta? st?? ?p??et???
  s??a??es? t?? ??????????? at?µ?? st?? pe?????sµ?
  t?? e?e??e??a? t???, ?ta? p???e?ta? ?a t???
  p??f????e? ap? ?a??asµ??e? ap?f?se?? µe µe????
  a?t??t?p? st? ??? t???, p??a??? ep????d??e? ?a?
  aµet????te?

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Gerald Dworkin (1972)

• ??e?? p???p???se??
• t? ???t?? p??pe? ?a ap?de??e? p?? p???e?ta?
  p???µat? ??a ß??ß? p?? ??a ?????????? ?t?µ? ?a
  p??t?µ??se ?a ap?f??e?
• ? ?f??e?a ap? t?? apa???e?µ??? e????e?a ?a e??a?
  saf?? µ????te?? t?? ??st??? t??
• ? pe?????sµ?? ?a e??a? ? e????st?? a?a??a???

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Ronald Dworkin (1991)

• ?? ???t???? t?? ap?d????
• (endorsement)
• ?e? ?p???e? pe??pt?s? ?a ße?t??se? t? ??? e???
  a????p?? ??t? p?? t? ?d?? t? ?t?µ? de?
  ap?d??eta?. ??t? s?µßa??e? s?ed?? p??t?te ?ta? ?
  ??? t?? ete???a?????eta?.
• ??a ? ?p??? pate??a??sµ?? d??a?????e?ta? µ??? ap?
  t?? e? t?? ?st???? ap?d??? t??.

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???t??? st?? Dworkin(ap? t??? pate??a??st??)

• ?a?da??????? ????? t?? ??µ??
• ?p??e? ?ata???? t? ?t?µ? ?a µ?? ap?de?te? t??
  pa??µßas?, a??? ?a??? t?? ?f?stata? µa?a??e?
  ap? t? ??µ? ?a? te???? t?? ap?d??eta?, e?te (st?
  ?e???te?? pe??pt?s?) µ??a????, es?te????p????ta?
  t?? ?a???a e?te (st?? ?a??te?? pe??pt?s?)
  e?e???t???, a?ad?aµ??f????ta? t?? p??t?µ?se?? t??
  ?a? ??????????p????ta? t?? ep???µ?e? t??.

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???ß??µata

• ???e pa??µßas? ?a p??pe? ?a d??a???????e? p???
  pe?st???
• ???d???? ???s????? p?a???? (p??spa???ta? ?a
  d??a??????se?? ??a ßa?µ? pa??µßas??, ?ata???e??
  ?a d??a?????e?? p??? pe??ss?te?a ap? ?sa e??e?
  p???es?).

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??t?-pate??a??st??(?a?t?a???)

• ? pate??a??sµ?? p??sß??e? ??? µ??? t?? ?????
  a?t???µ?a, t?? e?e??e??a ep??????, t? d??a??µa
  st?? ?d??t??? ??? ?a? te???? t?? ?d?a t??
  e?e??e??a, a??? eµp?d??e? t?? a??pt??? t??
  a?s??µat?? t?? at?µ???? e??????.
• ?? ?a?t?a??? f??e?e??e??? ad?af????? ??a t? e?? ?
  pate??a??sµ?? µp??e? ?a a???se? t?? ?f??e?a ? t??
  e??µe??a, ?a??? d????? ap???t? a??a st?? ?????
  a?t???µ?a.

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Robert Nozick (1974)

• ap? t?? ?at??????? p??sta?t??? t?? ?a?t ??a t??
  a????p?t?ta ?? a?t?s??p? p????pte? ?a? ?
  apa???e?s? ?a ???s?µ?p??e?ta? ? ?????p?? ?? µ?s?
  ??a t? d??? t?? ?a??, ef?s?? ? ?d??? de? t?
  ep???µe?
• ? ?e???a t?? a???se?? (entitlements theory) t??
  Nozick ??e? sa? st??? ?a ste?a??p???se? ?????
  ???sµ??? at?µ??? sfa??a d??s?? (????ßa? 2004)

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Ofe??µ?st??

• ???? t?? ???ß?? (harm principle)
• ? µ??ad???? s??p?? ????? t?? ?p????
  ??µ?µ?p??e?ta? t? ???t?? ?a pe?????se? t??
  e?e??e??a t?? at?µ?? pa?? t? ????s? t??
  te?e?ta??? e??a? ??a ?a ap?t???e? t? ß??ß? se
  ???a ?t?µa. ?e? ??µ?µ?p??e?ta? ?µ?? t? ???t?? ?a
  pe?????se? t?? e?e??e??a t?? at?µ?? ??a t? d???
  t?? ?a?? (s?µat??? ? ?????). ?e? d??a???ta? ?a
  t? ?p???e?se? ?a ???e? ? ?a µ?? ???e? ??t? d??t?
  ?p?t??eta? p?? ?ts? ?a e??a? ?a??te?a ?? a?t? ?
  d??t? ?a t? ???e? e?t???ste?? ? ??at? s?µf??a µe
  ??p????? ?ts? e??a? p?? s?st? ? p?? s?f?. ??
  ?t?µ? e??a? ????a??? p??? st?? ea?t? t??, p???
  st? s?µa t?? ?a? st? µ?a?? t??.
• John Stuart Mill (On Liberty, 1859)

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Joel Feinberg (1971, 1986)

• G?a ?a e??a? µ?a ep????? p?a?µat??? e???s?a ?a?
  aß?ast? (voluntary choice), ?a p??pe? ?a ?s?????
  p??te p???p???se??
• ??t?? p?? ep????e? ?a e??a? ??a??? ?a t? ???e?
  (??? a???????, ???as?e???, ?t?µ? µe??µ????
  d?a???t???? a??pt????, ??p.)
• ? ep????? ?a µ?? e??a? t? ap?t??esµa e?a?a??asµ??
  (? ep????? de? p??pe? ?a ep?ß???eta? µe t? ß?a)
• ? ep????? ?a µ?? e??a? t? ap?t??esµa p??????
  te??asµ?t?? (p.?. ?p??t?sµ??)
• ? ep????? ?a µ?? p????pte? ap? ?????a ?
  ?a??asµ??e? e?t?p?se?? ??a ta p?a?µat???
  pe??stat??? ?a? t?? s???pe?e? t?? e?a??a?t????
  d??at?t?t??.
• ? ep????? ?a µ?? e??a? t? ap?t??esµa ?atast?se??
  p?? p??s????? pa?eµp?d????? t?? ???? ???s? t??
  (µe???? ????as?, d??at? p????, ep????? ?a???t????
  ? p?t??, s?ßa?? ???e??? ??????, ??p.)

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Ofe??µ?sµ?? t?? ?a?????(rule utilitarianism)

• ? a?t?µet?p?s? t?? a????p?? ?? ????? ?s?t?µ??, ?
  p??stas?a t?? ßas???? e?e??e???? ?a? ?
  µe?a??te??? d??at?? pe?????sµ?? t?? pate??a??sµ??
  µa???p???esµa ?d??e? se µe??st?p???s? t??
  e??µe??a? t??? (Hardin 1988)
• ?as??? ???t???? ? ??a??p???s? t?? at?µ????
  p??t?µ?se??

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?? p??ß??µa t?? p????f???s??

• ??t?? ap? t? ?d?? t? ?t?µ?, ?a?e?? de? µp??e? ?a
  s???e?t??se? ?a? ?a d?a?e???ste? t?? apa?a?t?t?
  p????f???s? ??a ?a ep????e? ?a??te?a ap? a?t?.
• F.A. Hayek ? ap?te?esµat??? d?a?e???s? t??
  d?as???p?sµ???? sta ?t?µa ???s?? e??a? ad??at? ?a
  p?????e? ap? µ?a ?e?t???? e???s?a. ?? ?t?µ? de?
  e??a? t??e??, a??? s?????a e??a? ? ?a??te???
  ???t?? t?? ?eµ?t?? p?? t? e?d?af?????.
• Te???a a?t?p??s?p??-a?t?p??s?pe??µe???
  (principal-agent problem) ?ta? ??p???? a?a??te?
  se ??p???? ????? t?? p??stas?a t?? s?µfe???t??
  t??, t?? ????e? d??ad? a?t?p??s?p? t??, ?a p??pe?
  ?a ??ße? ?p??? t?? p?? ? a?t?p??s?p?? ??e? ta
  d??? t?? s?µf????ta p?? de? ta?t????ta? µe e?e??a
  t?? e?t???a. ????? de µ????? ?ta? ? a?t?p??s?p??
  a?t?a?a???e?eta? ?? t?t????, ????? t? s?µf???
  ???µ? ? t??????st?? t? d??at?t?ta ep?????? t??
  e?t???a.

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?p?st??f? st? Te???a t?? ??????????? ?p??????

• ?? ?t?µ? ??????e? ?a??te?a ap? ???e ????? p???
  e??a? t? ?a?? t??, a??? ?a? µp??e? ?a??te?a ap?
  ???e ????? ?a t? ep?d???e?.
• ???µa ?a? a? de? ?s??e? ap???ta t? p??t?
  ep??e???µa, ? e???e??? pa??µßas? st? ??? t??
  e??a? ?p?sd?p?te a?ap?te?esµat??? ?a? ?a ?d???se?
  se ?e???te?? ?at?stas? ap? t? µ? pa??µßas?.

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S?µpe??f????? ??????µ???(Behavioral Economics)

• Herbert A. Simon (??µpe? ??????µ???? 1978) ??
  ?????p?? de? e?e????? ?a? t?s? ?????????? ?s?
  ?p???te? ? ????a??? ?e???as??? ??????µ??? ?e???a.
  ?p?????? pe?????sµ?? st? d??at?t?t? t??? ?a
  a?t???f???? p????? t?? ?atast?se??, ?a a?a??s???
  ta ded?µ??a ?a? ?a ??µ????? ?e????ta.
• ?? pe??ss?te??? ?????p?? p??spa???? ?a ep?t?????
  t?? ??a??p???s? t?? p??t?µ?se?? t??? ?????ta?
  ?,t? ?a??te?? µp?????, ded?µ???? a?t?? t??
  ???st???? pe?????sµ?? t?? a????p???? f?s??. ?
  p????f???s? t??? de? e??a? t??e?a, ? s???? t???
  de? e??a? ?a? t?s? ?e???a?? ?a? p????? f???? ??
  e????e??? t??? e??a? as??epe??.
• ?e? µp????µe ???p?? ?a µ???µe ??a t??e?a
  ??????????t?ta, a??? ??a pe?????sµ??? ??a??t?ta
  ??????????? s????? (bounded rationality).

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???a p??ß??µata st? d?ad??as?a ????? ap?f?se??

• 1. G??st??? a???a??t?ta (cognitive incapacity)
• ? Anthony Kronman (1983), ep??e????ta? ?a ???se?
  t?? ???? ???s?, ??te? ?? p???p??es? t?? t??
  ????? fa?tas?a (moral imagination), d??ad? t?
  d??at?t?ta t?? at?µ?? ?a s???aµß??e? fa?tas?a??
  t?? ?????? s???pe?e? µ?a? e????e?a? ?a? ?a
  p??ß??pe? ta ap?te??sµat? t?? st?? ?a?a?t??a t??.
• ??? t? ?t?µ? de? d?a??te? a?t? t? d??at?t?ta,
  e??a? ß?ßa??, s?µf??a µe t?? Kronman, ?t? ta ????
  t?? ?a t?? ?d???s??? se pa????s? ?a?
  a?t??atast??f???? µ??f?? µet????a? (regret) ??a
  t?? p???e?? t??, p?? ?a µe??s??? a??µa
  pe??ss?te?? t? d??at?t?t? t?? ??a ???? ???s?.

36
???a p??ß??µata st? d?ad??as?a ????? ap?f?se??

• 2. ?? ep?????? de? a?tap???????ta? st??
  p??t?µ?se??
• ???µa ?a? e?? t? ?t?µ? d?a ?????????? ?a? ??
  p??t?µ?se?? t?? e??a? sta?e??? ?a? s??epe??, ??
  ep?????? t?? de? e??a? s?µßat?? µe t??
  p??t?µ?se?? t??.
• ??? pe?????sµ?? t?? ??????????t?ta? ? ad??aµ?a
  t?? ß????s?? ? a??as?a (weakness of will
  akrasia) ?a? ? ?a??asµ??? e?t?µ?s? t??
  p??a??t?t?? ? µ??p?a (myopia).
• St?? p??t? pe??pt?s?, t? ?t?µ? a?a??????e? p???
  e??a? t? s?µf???? t?? µa???p???esµa, a???
  ad??ate? ?a t? ep?d???e? ?a??? e??a? ??µa?? t??
  pa??? ?a? t?? ??e?? t??. ?e? ?at?????e? d??ad? ?a
  ep?d???e? t?? ?????? p???t?ta? p??t?µ?se?? t??.
• St? de?te??, t? ?t?µ? ?pe?e?t?µ? ta ?f??? µ?a?
  s?µpe??f???? ? a?t??eta ?p?t?µ? t? ??st?? t??
  ???? µe??µ???? p????f???s??.

37
???a p??ß??µata st? d?ad??as?a ????? ap?f?se??

• 3. ??d??e?e?? a??? ?a? pe??stas?a??? p??t?µ?se??
• ?????? ap? t?? p??t?µ?se?? µa? d?µ????????ta? ???
  ap? t?? d???? µa? a????e?, a??? µa? ep?ß?????ta?
  ap? t? ???????a, t? d?af?µ?s?, t? µ?µ?s?, a??µa
  ?a? t? f????. ???sµ??e? p??t?µ?se?? p???
  d?aµ??f????ta? ap? t?? ?p?t?µ?s? t?? d??at?t?t??
  µa? (adaptive preferences), ap? t?? ?pe?e?t?µ?s?
  a?t?? p?? ????µe (endowment effect) ? t?? ap?d???
  ?atast?se?? p?? µa? ?p?ßa?µ?????.
• G?a t??? ?????? a?t???, ?p?st????t?? t?? ??µ????
  pate??a??sµ?? ?p?? ? Cass Sunstein (1986) ?e?????
  ?t? ?? ?????p?? ????? p??t?µ?se?? d?? t??e??
  a?t?? p?? e?f?????? µ?s? t?? ep?????? t???
  (p??t?? t????) ?a? a?t?? p?? ad??at??? ?a
  p?a?µat?p???s??? e?a?t?a? t?? pa?ap??? ???st????
  pe?????sµ?? (de?te??? t????). ?? d??a?? ?a p??pe?
  ?a ß????se? ta ?t?µa ?a p?a?µat?p???s??? a?t??
  t?? ?????? p???t?ta? p??t?µ?se??, a??µa ?a? a?
  ??e?aste? ?a a?t?µet?p?se? pate??a??st??? t??
  e?pef?asµ??e? ?aµ???? p???t?ta? p??t?µ?se?? t???.

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?p??t?s? st?? ???t???

• ?a p??ß??µata p?? e?t?p????ta? e??a? µeµ???µ??a
  ?a? af????? e????ste? pe??pt?se??. S???????, ??
  ?????p?? f????ta? ??????????. ?? ?e??se? ?a?e??
  ?a p??ß???e? t? s?µpe??f??? µe????? ?µ?d??, ?a
  p??pe? ?a ?p???se? p?? ? µ?s?? ?????p?? ?a fe??e?
  ??????????. ?????, ?a p??pe? ?a ?atas?e??se? ??a
  µ??t??? a????p?? a???????????? ?a?
  a?t??atast??f???? p?? de? ??e? ?aµ?a p??ß?ept???
  ?s?? ?a? ep? p???? e??a? ?a??asµ???.
• ???µa ?a? ?ta? ? s?µpe??f??? eµfa???eta? ??
  a???????????, e??a? p??? p??a??? ?a eµfa???eta?
  ?? t?t??a st?? e??te???? pa?at???t? p?? de?
  ?at??e? t?? p????f???s? p?? ?at??e? t? d???
  ?p??e?µe??.
• St?? pe??pt?se?? e?e??e? p?? ta ?t?µa d???? ??t??
  a???????????, ta ?d?a e??a? ta ?ata?????te?a ?a
  t? a?t???f???? µ?s? t?? eµpe???a? t??? ?a? ?a
  d?????s??? t? s?µpe??f???. ? ??µ????
  pate??a??sµ?? ?a ?d???se? ?p?sd?p?te se ?e???te?a
  ap?te??sµata.

39
?a?ade??µata

• ???s? ?a???t????
• ?a????et? µ?t??t?ta

40
??? a??µa pa?ade??µata

• ???e? asfa?e?a? (Peltzman 1975)
• ??e???? fa?µ???? (Peltzman 1973)

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?a ???a t?? e?e??e??? ep??????

• Richard Posner
• ta pa?d?? ????? ?a? a?t? d??a??µata e?e??e??a?
  ????? ?a? ??f?as??
• ?? ?a p??state?e?? ta pa?d?? µ???? t?? ?????a t??
  18 ap? ???es? se ß?a?e? e????e? ?a? pe????af??
  de? e??a? µ??? d??????t??? a??? ?a?
  pa?aµ??f?t???. Ta ta af?se? ????? t?? apa?a?t?t?
  e??p??sµ? ?a ep?ß??s??? st?? ??sµ? ?p?? t??
  ?????µe.

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S?µpe??sµata

• a?t?-pate??a??sµ??, ßas??eta? st?? eµpe???a, st?
  d???µ? ?a? st? ?????, st?? e?e??e?? d?a????s? t??
  ?de?? ?a? t?? p????f???a?
• ? ???????a s???????? µp??e? ?a as??se? t??
  a?t?-pate??a??sµ? µ??? µ?s? t?? S??t??µat??, ?p??
  ?a? e?e? ?a p??state?se? t?? ea?t? t?? ap? t??
  a??a??es?a t?? p?e????f?a? ?a? ??? ap? t?? ?d?a
  t?? t?? e?e??e??a.

43
Sa? e??a??st?!
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