Taking Aim at Comprehension: Inferring Main Ideas and Cause and Effect

1
Taking Aim at ComprehensionInferring Main Ideas
andCause and Effect

• Michael C. McKenna
• University of Virginia

Sharon Walpole University of Delaware
2
Take Two
Here is the lead paragraph of a newspaper
article While wicked weather will not return
to the nation early next week, arctic air will
make a comeback across the Northeast. After a
seasonable day today and Monday, frigid air from
the north Tuesday will send temperatures back to
the brutally cold values of this past
February. What headline do you think appeared
above this story?
3
To compose a headline, a journalist must be able
to infer the main idea of a story. This is not
always a simple task, even for a good reader. It
is critical, however, because it is the basis of
crucial comprehension abilities, such as
monitoring ones understanding and summarizing.
Inferring main ideas is one of two inferential
elements well consider today.
4
To compose a headline, a journalist must be able
to infer the main idea of a story. This is not
always a simple task, even for a good reader. It
is critical, however, because it is the basis of
crucial comprehension abilities, such as
monitoring ones understanding and summarizing.
Inferring main ideas is one of two inferential
elements well consider today. Oh, yes, the
headline was Brutal Cold Returning to Northeast
5
Todays Goals

• Review the role of inferential thinking in
  reading comprehension
• Examine research-based approaches for teaching
  children to infer main ideas
• Examine research-based approaches for teaching
  children to infer cause-and-effect relationships
• Select from among these approaches and apply them
  to a chosen text
• Consider instructional resources available
  through the Teacher Academies

6
Back at School

• Work with teachers at one grade level as they
  plan to apply one or more of these approaches to
  trade books and/or core selections.
• Follow up with individual teachers to see how it
  went.
• Make plans for the other three grades.

7
GPS Elements that are the cornerstones
inferential comprehension.
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c. Generates questions to improve
comprehension f. Makes judgments and inferences
about setting, characters, and events and
supports them with evidence from the text i.
Makes connections between texts and/or personal
experiences
b. Makes predictions from text content c.
Generates questions to improve
comprehension g. Summarizes text content
c. Generates questions to improve
comprehension g. Summarizes text content p.
Recognizes the authors purpose
Identifies and infers cause-and-effect
relationships and draws conclusions
Recalls explicit facts and infers implicit facts
Identifies and infers main idea and supporting
details.
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Why is inferential comprehension so important?

• When students infer as they read,
• they link facts presented explicitly in the text,
• they link facts in the text with prior knowledge,
• they process the content actively, which helps
  them understand and remember it better.

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Key GPS Inferential Elements

• Inferring facts
• Inferring main ideas
• Inferring cause-and-effect relationships

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Key GPS Inferential Elements

• Inferring facts
• Inferring main ideas
• Inferring cause-and-effect relationships

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What does this element involve?

• The reader must start with an understanding of a
  paragraph or larger segment of text.
• The reader makes judgments about which facts are
  important.
• The reader shrinks the content into a single
  complete thought, which can be expressed as a
  sentence.

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Why is it important to infer main ideas while
reading?

• It is important in summarizing. In summarizing,
  main ideas are linked across paragraphs.
• It is important in comprehension monitoring.
  Unless a reader is attuned to the importance of
  ideas while reading, all of the facts and events
  will be given equal importance. This is not true,
  of course, and leads to a limited, superficial
  understanding of text content.

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What exactly is a main idea?

• A main idea is a statement that captures the most
  important thought represented in a paragraph or
  longer text segment.
• A main idea can be expressed as a complete
  sentence.
• A main idea is not the same as a topic, which can
  be expressed in a word or phase.
• Main ideas are usually associated with
  information text rather than narrative.

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Two Types of Main Ideas

• In their classic book on teaching comprehension,
  Pearson and Johnson suggest two basic kinds of
  paragraph main ideas
• Label-List. The paragraph content falls into a
  category.

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Example of a Label-List Main Idea
Robins build nests in trees. Pheasants build
nests in bushes. Eagles build nests in rocks.
Birds build nests in a variety of
places. The first three sentences
can be grouped under the last.
17
Two Types of Main Ideas

• In their classic book on teaching comprehension,
  Pearson and Johnson suggest two basic kinds of
  paragraph main ideas
• Label-List. The paragraph content falls into a
  category.
• Rule-Example. The main idea is a rule and the
  paragraph content provides one or more examples.

18
Example of a Rule-Example Main Idea
In Alaska, it is important not to be caught out
in the cold. Motorists keep their gas tanks full
in case they get stranded. They also keep
blankets and food in the trunk. The
first sentence states a general rule, and the
rest of the paragraph provides an example.
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Topic Sentences In both of these examples, the
paragraph has a topic sentence that captures the
main idea. In the first example, the topic
sentence comes at the end. In the second example,
it comes at the beginning. Research shows that
paragraphs that begin with topic sentences are
easier for young readers to comprehend (Winograd
Bridge, 1986). When an author places the topic
sentence at the end of the paragraph or does
not include one at all it creates an
opportunity for a teacher to step in and conduct
a think-aloud. How would you help students
reason their way to the main idea of the
following paragraph?
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How would you help students reason their way to
the main idea of the following paragraph?
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Snakes dont have arms or legs. They dont have
wings or fins. But some snakes can climb trees or
swim in water. Others can dig underground. Some
even jump off branches. They flatten their bodies
so they fall slowly and land safely.
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Task 1 Try your hand at writing a topic sentence
for this paragraph. To do this, you must first
infer the main idea!
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• Teacher Think-Aloud No Topic Sentence
• There are many paragraphs like the preceding one
  without topic sentences. A teacher can conduct a
  think-aloud that guides students in inferring the
  main idea.
• Choose a paragraph without a topic sentence in a
  core selection, a trade book, or a read-aloud.
• Infer the main idea yourself.
• Plan your think-aloud.
• Make sure you involve students when you deliver
  it.

Lets revisit our snake.
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Snakes dont have arms or legs. They dont have
wings or fins. But some snakes can climb trees or
swim in water. Others can dig underground. Some
even jump off branches. They flatten their bodies
so they fall slowly and land safely.
The teacher might say, Lets see if we can put
all these facts together. The author tells us
about some things snakes can do. We also learn
that they can do them without arms or legs or
wings or fins. How can we put that in a sentence?

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Everything in the city rushes and races and
roars everything except a bright patch of
green. It is a park, a place where living things
of all kinds can escape the noise and
crowds. In the park, trees cast their shade
while birds and animals go about the business of
living. Human visitors come, too. Sometimes they
sit quietly and close their eyes for a short
rest. Other times they look around to find a
whole world hidden from the city beyond.
These paragraphs are oddly structured. The last
sentence of the first paragraph serves as a topic
sentence for the next paragraph. The teacher
might say, This part seems to tell us some ways
that living things can escape the noise and
crowds of the city.
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Now lets look at a more direct approach to
teaching children how to infer main ideas.
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Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking Level 1 Where
do we begin to teach young children how to infer
main ideas? Pearson and Johnson (1978) argue that
determining a main idea involves realizing a
thought that runs through sentences and links
them like a thread. They suggest starting with
lists of related words and helping students infer
a category label that describes all of the words.
Try your hand at this birds states trees rob
in Georgia oak eagle Florida maple pheasant
Ohio pine duck Maine elm
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Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking Level 1 Where
do we begin to teach young children how to infer
main ideas? Pearson and Johnson (1978) argue that
determining a main idea involves realizing a
thought that runs through sentences and links
them like a thread. They suggest starting with
lists of related words and helping students infer
a category label that describes all of the words.
Try your hand at this birds states trees rob
in Georgia oak eagle Florida maple pheasant
Ohio pine duck Maine elm
29
Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking Level 2 Jim
Baumann (1986) suggests that the next step should
be helping students reduce a long sentence to its
basic idea. Heres an example Susan, the girl
who lives down the street in the blue house,
goes to Girl Scouts every Wednesday
afternoon. How can we shrink the sentence to
eliminate details?
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Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking Level
2 Susan, the girl who lives down the street in
the blue house, goes to Girl Scouts every
Wednesday afternoon. Susan goes to Girl
Scouts. Baumann (1986)
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Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking Level 3 The
third level is to recognize a topic sentence. We
have seen how this might pose problems because
topic sentences are not always the first sentence
in a paragraph and because sometimes they are not
present. Be alert for paragraphs structured like
this one Robins build nests in trees.
Pheasants build nests in bushes. Eagles build
nests in rocks. Birds build nests in a variety
of places. Then guide students as they recognize
the sentence that expresses the main idea.
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Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking Level 4 The
fourth level involves paragraphs without topic
sentences. Here, the main idea cannot merely be
recognized. It must be inferred. Teaching
students to make such inferences (once theyre
ready) might involve activities like
these. Provide a paragraph with the topic
sentence removed and ask students to write one.
Compare their sentence with the original. For
instance, you might start with Robins build
nests in trees. Pheasants build nests in bushes.
Eagles build nests in rocks.
33
Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking Level 4 The
fourth level involves paragraphs without topic
sentences. Here, the main idea cannot merely be
recognized. It must be inferred. Teaching
students to make such inferences (once theyre
ready) might involve activities like these.
Provide a paragraph with the topic sentence
removed and suggest some possible topic
sentences. Lead a discussion about which is best.
For instance a. Birds build nests. b. Birds
do things. c. Birds build nests in many places.
34
Note that a favorite test item on group
achievement tests presents students with a short
passage and then asks them to choose the best
title. Doing so requires them to infer the main
idea!
35
Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking Level 4 The
fourth level involves paragraphs without topic
sentences. Here, the main idea cannot merely be
recognized. It must be inferred. Teaching
students to make such inferences (once theyre
ready) might involve activities like these. Link
main idea thinking to writing. Teach students to
begin each paragraph with a topic sentence. Doing
so will make them more attentive to they topic
sentences they encounter while reading. How can
you help facilitate transfer to reading?
36
Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking Level 4 The
fourth level involves paragraphs without topic
sentences. Here, the main idea cannot merely be
recognized. It must be inferred. Teaching
students to make such inferences (once theyre
ready) might involve activities like
these. Construct a semantic map with students.
Write a detail at the end of each spoke. Then,
with the help of students, write the main idea in
the center of semantic map.
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Adapted from Baumann (1986).
38

• Task 2
• Choose a paragraph in a trade book or core
  selection that lacks a clearly stated main idea.
• Plan a think-aloud that would model for children
  how a good reader might infer the main idea.
• Prepare to share!

39
Key GPS Inferential Elements

• Inferring facts
• Inferring main ideas
• Inferring cause-and-effect relationships

40
Key GPS Inferential Elements

• Inferring facts
• Inferring main ideas
• Inferring cause-and-effect relationships

41
Take Two
Here is the opening paragraph of a novel called
Mischief by British writer Ben Travers One
night after they had been married only about six
months, Mr. and Mrs. Reginald Bingham went to
Ciros. Mr. Bingham had never been to Ciros
before. His surprise, therefore, on seeing his
wife there was considerable. Why was Mr. Bingham
surprised to see his wife at Ciros?
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Adult readers are generally so good at inferring
cause-and-effect relationships that its
difficult to find an example where they have to
apply themselves! When you finished the
paragraph, your first impression might have been
that it didnt make sense. You might then have
tried to speculate (that Mr. Bingham was a
bigamist, etc.). But in fact, you were
intentionally misled by Travers. He knew that you
would assume that when newlyweds go out, they go
together. But this isnt always the case, and you
had trouble inferring a cause. Children can
experience similar difficulties, though the
result can be confusing, not amusing.
43
What does this element involve?

• The reader begins with an event in the text.
• The reader may consider earlier events that could
  have caused it.
• OR
• The reader may look ahead for the effects caused
  by the event.

How can teachers foster this ability?
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Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter
Rabbit
Now lets create a timeline to capture the
sequence of events.
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Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter
Rabbit
Some of the events in the sequence are not
causally related.
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter
looks lettuces radishes sick for parsley and
beans
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Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter
Rabbit
But these two events cause the next event in the
sequence.
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter
looks lettuces radishes sick for parsley and
beans
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Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter
Rabbit
Peters feeling sick is the effect of his
overeating.
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter
looks lettuces radishes sick for parsley and
beans
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Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter
Rabbit
But Peters feeling sick then causes him to look
for parsley.
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter
looks lettuces radishes sick for parsley and
beans
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Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter
Rabbit
So what will happen next? Will Peter find some
parsley?
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter
looks lettuces radishes sick for parsley and
beans
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No!
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Lets review what we know about cause and effect

• Many sequences of events are not causally
  related.
• Cause-and-effect is a special kind of sequence
  since causes always come before effects.
• Causes have effects, which can then become causes
  themselves in cause-and-effect chains.
• Prediction is a special kind of cause-and-effect,
  in which we know the cause but the effect lies in
  the future.
• Children will be better at inferring
  cause-and-effect relationships when they realize
  that such relationships depend on sequences.
• Children will be better predictors if they
  realize that predictions are based on
  cause-and-effect.

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Of course, Beatrix Potter could have saved us all
this bother by being more explicit. Heres what
she might have written First he ate some
lettuces and some French beans and then he ate
some radishes. Because of eating so much, he
felt sick. Therefore, he went to look for some
parsley because he knew that eating parsley might
make him feel better. Words like because and
therefore signal causal relationships in no
uncertain terms. In these cases, the reader does
not need to infer. But good writers often imply
rather than state directly, leaving it to the
reader to make connections. Young readers may
need support in learning to do this.
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What instructional methods can teachers use to
help students infer causal relationships?
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Method 1 Graphic Organizers Sequence and
Cause-and-Effect The time line used in our Peter
Rabbit example could easily be sketched on a
white board as a teacher guides students through
a story. This graphic organizer makes the time
order visible and helps students infer causal
links and to predict outcomes both of which
depend on time.
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• Method 2
• Teacher Questioning
• Cause-and-Effect
• A teacher can help students infer causal
  relationships by asking questions.
• You may need to ask some set-up questions that
  get relevant events into the discussion.
• Use questions that focus on the sequence of
  events.
• Ask why questions to get at cause. These are
  very effective (Menke Pressley, 1994).
• Ask children to predict beyond the end of a
  story. (What will happen ?)
• Ask children to predict by changing an event in
  the story (What if ?)
• Expect children to support their predictions.

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Lets look at an example of teacher questioning
based on Peter Rabbit.
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Teacher What did Peter eat first? Child Lettuce
s and beans. Teacher Right. What did he eat
next? Child Radishes.
These are literal questions because of the key
words, first and then. They allow the teacher to
set up the inferences to come.
58

Teacher Why do you think Peter felt
sick? Child Because he ate so much. Teacher I
think so. Do you know what parsley
is? Child No. Teacher Parsley is a plant, like
radishes and beans. Why do you think Peter
went to look for some?
The teacher asks the child to infer a
cause-and-effect relationship. Note that we cant
really be certain about this relationship. It is
merely probable.
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Teacher Why do you think Peter felt
sick? Child Because he ate so much. Teacher I
think so. Do you know what parsley
is? Child No. Teacher Parsley is a plant, like
radishes and beans. Why do you think Peter
went to look for some?
The teacher suggests that this conclusion is
merely probable and then asks a question to
assess prior knowledge.

60
Teacher Why do you think Peter felt
sick? Child Because he ate so much. Teacher I
think so. Do you know what parsley
is? Child No. Teacher Parsley is a plant, like
radishes and beans. Why do you think Peter
went to look for some?
After filling this gap in prior knowledge, the
teacher asks a question requiring the student to
speculate about a cause.

61

Teacher Maybe! Ive heard that parsley is
good for a stomach ache. Do you think hell
find some?
After reinforcing the childs speculative
inference, the teacher asks for a prediction.
Remember that this is really a type of
cause-and-effect question.
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Teacher Maybe! Ive heard that parsley is
good for a stomach ache. Do you think hell
find some? Child I think so. Teacher Why do
you think he will? Child Im not
sure. Teacher Well, hes in a garden
Child And parsley might be growing there!

The teacher asks the child to support his
prediction.
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Teacher Maybe! Ive heard that parsley is
good for a stomach ache. Do you think hell
find some? Child I think so. Teacher Why do
you think he will? Child Im not
sure. Teacher Well, hes in a garden
Child And parsley might be growing there!

The teacher prompts such support.
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Resources for Teaching Inferential Comprehension
Skills
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Questioning Resources
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Cause-and Effect Graphic Organizer Resources
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Other Inferential Comprehension Resources
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Coachs Corner

• The approaches we have reviewed today are
  summarized in a quick reference sheet.
• Review the list to make sure you are comfortable
  with each approach.
• What questions do you have?

69
Back at School

• Work with teachers at one grade level as they
  plan to apply one or more of these approaches to
  trade books and/or core selections.
• Follow up with individual teachers to see how it
  went.
• Make plans for the other three grades.

70
References

• Almasi, J.F. (2003). Teaching strategic processes
  in reading. New York Guilford.
• Baumann, J.F. (1986). The direct instruction of
  main idea comprehension ability. In J.F. Baumann
  (Ed.), Teaching main idea comprehension (pp.
  133-178). Newark, DE IRA.
• McKenna, M.C. (2002). Help for struggling
  readers. New York Guilford Press.
• Menke, D.J., Pressley, M. (1994). Elaborative
  interrogation Using why questions to enhance
  the learning from text. Journal of Reading, 37,
  642-645.
• Paris, S.G., Wasik, B.A., Turner, J.C. (1991).
  The development of strategic readers. In R. Barr,
  M.L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson (Eds.),
  Handbook of reading research (vol. 2, pp.
  609-640). New York Longman.
• Pearson, P.D., Johnson, D.D. (1978). Teaching
  reading comprehension. New York Holt, Rinehart,
  and Winston.
• Raphael, T.E., Au, K.H. (2005). QAR Enhancing
  comprehension and test taking across grades and
  content areas. The Reading Teacher, 59, 206-221.
• Willingham, D.T. (2006-07). The usefulness of
  brief instruction in reading comprehension
  strategies. American Educator, Winter, 39-45, 50.
• Winograd, P.N., Bridge, C.A. (1986). The
  comprehension of important information in written
  prose. In J.F. Baumann (Ed.), Teaching main idea
  comprehension (pp. 18-48). Newark, DE IRA.