Memory

1
Memory
The ability of the mind or of an individual or
organism to retain learned information and
knowledge of past events and experiences and to
retrieve it
2
Connect to Remember
3
10 names you should know

4
(No Transcript)
5
Memory in the Brain
Image shows what regions in subject's brain were
involved in memory task. Improves understanding
of "working memory"

• Brain areas
• Pre-frontal cortex--retrieval working memory
• Hippocampus other parts of Thalamus--long-term
  memories
• Amygdala--emotional events, fear conditioning
• Occipital Temporal Lobes--visual memories

6
(No Transcript)
7
Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett (1886-1969) was
British psychologist
One of forerunners of cognitive psychology
famous study cast considerable light on formation
of memory. Composed short fable called The War
of the Ghosts to test memory. Could you recall
events?
Kenneth Craik

• wrote The Nature of Explanation.
• concept of mental models, mind forms models of
  reality and uses them to predict similar future
  events.
• One of earliest practitioners of
  cognitive science.

R.S. Lockhart

• Principles
• The greater the processing of information during
  learning,
• more it will be retained and remembered.
  Practice,Practice,Practice!
• 2. Processing will be automatic unless attention
  is focused on a particular level.

8
Three Stages of Memory
7 items
9
Hermann Ebbinghaus
pioneered experimental study of memory,
discovered forgetting curve / learning curve.
A typical graph of the forgetting curve shows
that humans tend to halve their memory of newly
learned knowledge in a matter of days or weeks
unless they consciously review the learned
material.
10
Ebbinghaus Learning Curve
11
Francis Galton (1822-1911)British
Psychologist

• Coined term "eugenics" and phrase "nature versus
  nurture
• Discovered that fingerprints were an index of
  personal identity

• Advocated human breeding restrictions to curtail
  breeding of 'feeble-minded'

12
(No Transcript)
13
The first systematic experimental work to be
done on STM was by Joseph Jacobs (1887) He
devised a technique called Digit Span which has
played an important role in memory research Most
people can manage 6 or 7 digits, but there is a
large range (4-10)
This can be improved by speaking them aloud or by
chunking
http//www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch07/digitsp
an.mhtml
14
The Nature of Memory

• Encoding Gets information
• into memory.
• Storage Retains information
• over time.
• Retrieval Take information
• out of storage.

15
Encoding
first of three stages in memory process,
involving processes associated with receiving or
registering stimuli through senses and modifying
that information.
Levels of Processing Theory
States that memory is
continuum from shallow to deep.
Shallow Level Physical and perceptual

features analyzed.
Intermediate Level Stimulus is recognized

and labeled.
Deepest Level Semantic, meaningful,
symbolic
characters used.
16
Sensory Memory Storage
Holds information from world in original form
only for instant.

• Echoic Memory Auditory memory lasts
  several seconds.
• Iconic Memory
  Visual memory lasts about 1/4 second.

George Sperling 1960
documented existence of iconic memory (sensory
memory subtypes) with free-recall cued-recall
experiments
17
Short Term (Working) Memory Storage
Miller's Magic Number George Miller's classic
1956 study found amount of information which can
be remembered on one exposure is between five and
nine items, Applying range of 2 or -2, number
7 became known as Miller's Magic Number, number
of items held in Short-Term Memory
working memory was referred to as short-term
memory, primary memory, immediate memory,
operant memory, or provisional memory
18
Working Memory
Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed Model of
Working Memory 1974

• Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and
  spatial info
• Phonological loop - holds verbal information
• Central executive - coordinates all activities of
  working memory brings new information into
  working memory from sensory and long-term memory

19
Episodic buffer

• In 2000, Baddeley added fourth component called
  'episodic buffer'.
• third slave system, dedicated to linking
  information across domains to form integrated
  units of visual, spatial, and verbal information
  with time sequencing (or chronological ordering)
• memory of a story or a movie scene.
• assumed to have links to long-term memory and
  semantical meaning

20
Long-Term Memory
relatively permanent type of memory holds huge
amounts of information long period of time
21
Long-Term Memory
cues
facts
experiences
skills
learning
22
(No Transcript)
23

• Explicit Memory conscious recollection of
  information, such as specific facts or events
• Semantic Memory persons knowledge of world
• Episodic Memory retention of information about
  the where and when of lifes happenings
• Prospective Memory Remembering information about
  something in future
  time-based or
  event-based.

24
(No Transcript)
25
Retrieval Explicit Memory

• Context-Dependent Memory
• more successful at retrieving if in same
  environment in which we stored them (cues)
• Olfactory is strongest
• State-Dependent Memory
• more successful at retrieving if in same mood as
  when we stored them

26

• Implicit Memory behavior is affected by prior
  experience without that experience being
  consciously recollected
• Classical Conditioning
• Procedural Memory Memory for skills.
• Priming Information that people already have in
  storage is activated to help them remember new
  information better and faster

27
Declarative vs. procedural memory

• Declarative memory (explicit memory)
• facts
• dates
• events
• Hippocampus is critical
• Procedural memory (non-declarative/implicit)
• how to perform an act (ride a bicycle)
• basal ganglia (dorsal striatum / caudate-putamen)
  is critical

28
Atkinson-Shiffrin model, Multi-store model or
Multi-memory model 1968
human memory involves sequence of three stages
Added later
Original Model
29
Memory Improvement
30
Memory Measures

• Recognition specific cue is matched against LTM
• Recall general cue used to search memory
• E.g. define term operant conditioning
• Relearning learns material second time.

31
Memory
Serial Position Effect tendency for items at
beginning and end of list to be recalled more
readily.
1.00 .50 .00
Primacy Effect
Probability of Recall
Recency Effect
1 5 10
15
Serial Position of Item
32
Theories of Forgetting

• Decay theory memory trace fades with time
• Interference theory information competes for
  retrieval
• Proactive interference old information
  interferes with recall of new
  information
• Retroactive interference new information
  interferes with recall of old information
• Motivated forgetting loss of painful memories
• Encoding failure information never encoded
  properly from STM to LTM and thus forgotten.
• Retrieval failure information still in LTM, but
  cant be recalled - retrieval cue is absent

33
Trace Consolidation Theory

• memory hasnt had time to become firmly
  established
• Consolidation is a process lasting for several
  hours, or possibly even days, which fixes
  information in long-term memory.
• Recently formed memories still being
  consolidated are especially vulnerable to
  interference and forgetting.
• most popular theory among neuroscientists

34
Memory Disorders

• Korsikoffs Syndrome (chronic alcoholics),
  Alzheimers, patients like H.M. with
  hippocampal/thalamus damage, Amnesia

• Severe epilepsy, treated with surgery to
  bilaterally remove medial temporal lobes.
• Operation 9/1953, 27 years old
• Tested 4/1955, age 29
• Reported date 3/1953, age of 27
• No memories since operation
• IQ better than pre-op (112)
• Fewer seizures
• Profound failure to create new memories
• Cant find new home (after 10 mos.)
• Cant remember new people, names, tasks

HM
35
H.M.

• Right now, Im wondering, Have I done or said
  anything amiss? You see, at this moment
  everything looks clear to me, but what happened
  just before? Thats what worries me. Its like
  waking from a dream I just dont remember.
• Every day is alone in itself,
  whatever enjoyment
  Ive had,
  and whatever
  sorrow Ive had.

36
HM

• Deficits
• Complete loss of episodic memory
• Events/People since operation
• Location of new home
• Rey figure copy but
• not recalled
• Semantic memory
• Language frozen in 50s
• Exceptions
• Ayatollah, rock n roll

37
Amnesia

• Amnesia - forgetting produced by brain injury or
  trauma
• Retrograde amnesia problems with recall of
  information prior to trauma
• Anterograde amnesia problems with recall of
  information after trauma

Anterograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
Point of Trauma
38
Eyewitness Testimony

• Primarily because of constructive nature of
  memory, reliability of eyewitness testimony is
  questioned.

DNA
Lineups Can Be Biased
Jurors Believe, Not Reason
39
Repressed MemoriesHotly Debated

• Reliability called into question due to
• Constructive Recall according to schema theory
  of memory organization long-term memories are
  stored as parts of schemas (cognitive structures
  used for organizing information about events).
• Ulric Neisser suggested there are times when
  memories are distorted by adding or changing some
  of details in order to fit with schema.
• Source amnesia explicit memory disorder in which
  someone can recall certain information, but does
  not know where or how it was obtained.
• Sleeper effect Carl Hovland refers to "hidden"
  effect of propaganda message even when it comes
  from discredible source.

40
Elizabeth Loftus
Works on human memory and how it can be changed
by facts, ideas, suggestions and other forms of
post-event information. work is controversial

has direct application in law and
counseling.
False Memory Syndrome
1992 by False Memory Syndrome Foundation (FMSF)
theory that some adults who remember instances of
abuse from childhood may be mistaken .Foundation
hypothesizes that so-called false memories may be
result of recovered memory therapy, another term
coined by the FSMF in the early 1990s.
41
Pick a good
elephant    
Positive Pollyanna Principle
Pollyanna principle or Pollyannaism    
    Von Restorff Effect also called the
isolation effect, predicts that item that "stands
out like a sore thumb" (called distinctive
encoding) more likely remembered     Zeigarnik
Effect people remember uncompleted or interrupted
tasks better than completed ones
Remembering

• people agree with positive statements describing
  them.
• sometimes called positivity bias.
• phenomenon similar to Forer effect IBM term,
  stating machines should work, people should
  think(aka. personal validation fallacy or Barnum
  effect after P. T. Barnum)

42

• Ways to Improve Working Memory
• Chunking
• Rehearsal
• H.Ebbinghaus meaningful words easier to recall
•  takes 10 times more exposure to material in
  order
• to learn if words are random
• rhymes, song and stories help
• organize
•     Most important first primacy effect
•     Most important last recency effect
•  put it in context

http//www.youtube.com/watch?vFBpXMLDMDf0
43
(No Transcript)