Gateway

1
Gateway

• Biology Content Review

2
Characteristics of Living Things

• Reproduce
• Grow
• Develop
• Need food/require energy
• Made of cells
• Respond to their environment
• Adapt to their environment

3
Cells and Heredity

• Cell Theory
• All living things are made of cells.
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and
  function.
• All cells come from pre-existing cells.

4
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Cell Membrane (Plasma membrane)
• Surrounds cell
• Selective barrier
• Controls what substances enter and exit the cell

5
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Cytoplasm
• Jelly-like material that fills the cell

6
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Ribosomes
• Site of protein synthesis (where proteins are
  made)

7
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Golgi Apparatus
• Prepare proteins that will leave the animal cell
  or be placed in the plasma membrane
• Post Office of the cell

8
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Mitochondria
• Powerhouse of the cell
• Site of cellular respiration which produces ATP
  from sugars (glucose)

9
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Lysosome
• Digest macromolecules
• Single celled organismseating, digest food
• Digest/recycle old organelles stomach of the
  cell
• Immune system

10
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Centrosome
• Produce microtubules during cell division.
  Microtubules control the movement of chromosomes.

11
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Transport of materials such as proteins
• Ribosomes attached
• Production of proteins occurs on ribosomes

12
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Transport of materials such as proteins
• No ribosomes attached

13
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Nucleus
• Stores/protects DNA

14
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Nuclear Envelope
• Membrane that surrounds the nucleus

15
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Nucleolus
• Found in the nucleus
• Produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which forms
  ribosomes

16
Organelles and Cell Parts

• DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid
• Contains genes/hereditary information
• Determines structure of proteins

17
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Chloroplast
• Site of photosynthesis, which stores the suns
  energy in sugars (glucose)
• Found in plants

18
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Vacuole
• Storage
• Waste, nutrients, water, ions

19
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Cell Wall
• Supports and protects plant cells, bacteria,
  fungi, some protists
• Allows cell to exist in hypotonic environment

20
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Cilia and Flagella
• Movement (locomotion)

21
Organelles and Cell Parts

• Microfilaments and Microtubules
• Structural components, skeleton of the cell

22
Cellular Classification

• Unicellular Organisms
• Single celled
• Bacteria, archaea, some protists (euglena,
  paramecium, amoeba)
• Multicellular Organisms
• More than one cell
• Plants, animals, fungi, some protists

23
Cellular Classification

• Eukaryote
• Nucleus present
• Single or multi-celled
• Membrane bound organelles
• Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists
• Prokaryote
• No nucleus
• No membrane bound organelles
• Single celled
• Primitive
• Bacteria, Archaea

24
Cellular Classification

• Plant
• Eukaryotic
• Cell wall (cellulose)
• Vacuole, chloroplast
• No lysosome, no centrioles
• Animal
• Eukaryotic
• Lysosomes, centrioles
• No cell wall, no vacuole, no chloroplast

25
(No Transcript)
26
Practice

• Which of the kingdoms contain only multicellular
  organisms?
• Plant, Animal
• Which of the kingdoms contain only single-celled
  organisms?
• Bacteria, Archaea
• Which of the kingdoms contain both single-celled
  and multicellular organisms?
• Fungi, Protist

27
Practice Decide whether each of the following is
unicellular or multicellular, prokaryotic or
eukaryotic and state the kingdom to which
belongs.

• Human
• M/E/Animal
• Cat
• M/E/Animal
• Bacteria
• U/P/Bacteria
• Oak Tree
• M/E/Plant
• Goldfish
• M/E/Animal

28
Practice Decide whether each of the following is
unicellular or multicellular, prokaryotic or
eukaryotic and state the kingdom to which
belongs.

• Euglena
• U/E/Protist
• Mushroom
• M/E/Fungi
• Fly
• M/E/Animal
• Snake
• M/E/Animal
• Paramecium
• U/E/Protist

29
Practice Decide whether each of the following is
unicellular or multicellular, prokaryotic or
eukaryotic and state the kingdom to which
belongs.

• Daffodil
• M/E/Plant
• Cyanobacteria
• U/E/Protist
• Virus
• None
• Kelp
• M/E/Protist

30
Homeostasis

• Maintaining a constant and stable environment
  inside of an organism
• Examples
• Breathe in oxygen
• Breathe out carbon dioxide
• Eat Food
• Energy
• Building Blocks
• Eliminate Waste
• Maintain Temperature
• Blood pH
• Blood sugar

31
How does each of the following organs, systems,
or responses function in maintaining homeostasis?

• Kidneys
• Cardiovascular System
• Shivering
• Sweating
• Sunning
• Buffers in our blood
• Roots on a plant
• Leaves on a plant
• Digestive System
• Mitochondria
• Lysosome
• Stomach

32
Cellular Transport

• Materials Transported into a cell
• Nutrients
• Water
• Sugar (carbohydrates)
• Ions
• Amino Acids
• Fats
• Oxygen
• Materials Transported out of a cell
• Waste
• Carbon Dioxide
• Proteins
• Sugar
• Hormones

33
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Active Transport
• Requires Energy (ATP)
• Uses Transport Protein

34
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Passive Transport
• Does not require energy
• Particles move from high concentration to low
  concentration.
• Works to reach equilibrium

35
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Passive Transport
• Diffusion
• Movement of particles through the membrane down a
  concentration gradient

http//www.indiana.edu/phys215/lecture/lecnotes/d
iff.html
36
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Passive Transport
• Osmosis
• Movement of water through a semi-permeable
  membrane from an area of high water concentration
  to an area of low water concentration.

37
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Passive Transport
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Movement of particles through a cell membrane by
  means of a transport protein.
• Down the concentration gradient
• Does NOT require energy.

38
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Osmosis
• Movement of water
• Water makes up about 70 of the cell and is
  required for transport of food, nutrients, and
  waste throughout the body.
• Water moves from a hypotonic solution to a
  hypertonic solution.

39
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Osmosis
• These are relative terms used to compare two
  solutions
• Hypotonic Solution Lower solute concentration
• Hypertonic Solution Greater solute concentration
• Isotonic Solution Equal solute concentration

40
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane
41
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Osmosis
• Animal Cells need to be surrounded by an isotonic
  solution
• Animal cells in a hypotonic solution gain water
  and will swell and burst
• Animal cells in a hypertonic solution lose water
  and will shrivel

42
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Osmosis

43
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Osmosis
• Plant Cells need to be surrounded by a hypotonic
  solution.
• Plant cells in an isotonic solution become
  flaccid/ limp
• Plant cells in a hypertonic solution lose water
  undergo plasmolysis

44
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane
45
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Endocytosis
• Cell eating
• A cell takes in macromolecules or other
  substances when regions of the plasma membrane
  surround the substance, pinch off, and form a
  vesicle within the cell.

46
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane

• Exocytosis
• A cell secretes macromolecules waste, hormones,
  neurotransmitters, etc.

47
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane-
PRACTICE

• 1. An animal cell is placed in a hypertonic
  solution what will happen to the cell?
• Lose water, shrivel
• 2. A plant cell contains a solute concentration
  of 0.5M in what direction will water move if the
  cell is placed in a 0.2M solution?
• Into the cell
• 3. What term best describes the process by which
  a drop of food coloring over time spreads out
  uniformly through a beaker of water?
• diffusion

48
Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane-
PRACTICE

• In the diagram, what will be the direction of net
  water movement across the semi-permeable
  membrane?
• To the left

49
Cell Division

• Mitosis
• Growth and Repair
• Somatic (body) cells
• Daughter cells
• Two produced
• Diploid (2n)
• Identical to the parent

50
Cell Division
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
51
Steps of Mitosis

• Prophase
• Chromatin coiled to form discrete chromosomes
• Nucleoli disappear
• Form mitotic spindle, lengthen microtubules
• Nuclear membrane breaks down
• Microtubules attach to chromosomes

52
Steps of Mitosis

• Metaphase
• Chromosomes line up at middle of cell

53
Steps of Mitosis

• Anaphase
• Microtubules shorten
• Chromatids separate, are pulled toward opposite
  sides of the cell

54
Steps of Mitosis

• Telophase
• Daughter nuclei form at either side
• Chromatin becomes less tightly coiled
• Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) occurs during
  telophase.

55
Meiosis

• Sexual reproduction (Why is meiosis required for
  sexual reproduction?)
• Form gametes (sperm and egg)
• Daughter cells
• Four produced (two nuclear divisions)
• Haploid (n, cuts the number of chromosomes in
  half)
• Different from parent and unique from each other

56
Meiosis

• Steps
• Prophase I
• Metaphase I
• Anaphase I
• Telophase I
• Prophase II
• Metaphase II
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II

57
Meiosis
58
Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
59
Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
60
Energy/ Matter Transformations

• Macromolecules
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic
  acids are all organic macromolecules.
• Organic Molecules are composed primarily of
  carbon and are the building blocks of all living
  organisms.

61
Macromolecules
62
Macromolecules
63
Macromolecules
64
Macromolecules
65
Carbohydrates

• Glucose
• Required to produce ATP through cellular
  respiration
• Glycogen
• Polymer of glucose
• Short term energy storage for animals
• Stored in the liver and muscles
• Starch
• Polymer of glucose
• Short term energy storage for plants (example
  potato)
• Stored in the roots
• Cellulose
• Polymer of glucose
• Structural
• Cell walls in plants

66
Lipids

• Energy storage
• Fatsanimals
• Oilsplants
• Padding and Insulation, cell membranes

67
Nucleic Acids

• DNA
• Structure- double helix

68
Nucleic Acids

• DNA Replication
• Semi-conservative
• Double Helix unwinds, and each strand separates
• Each strand used as template to construct new
  complementary strand
• Occurs before Mitosis and Meiosis

69
Nucleic Acids
70
Nucleic Acids

• DNA Determines structure of proteins
• Each group of three bases codes for a single
  amino acid
• Proteins assembled through process of
  transcription and translation

71
Nucleic Acids

• DNA determines structure of proteins
• Each group of three bases codes for a single
  amino acid
• Proteins assembled through process of
  transcription and translation

72
Nucleic Acids

• RNA
• Single stranded
• Ribonucleic Acid (contains ribose rather than
  deoxyribose).
• Four basesAdenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine
  (Uracil replaces Thymine)
• Three types
• rRNAforms the ribosomes
• tRNAtransports amino acids from cytoplasm to
  ribosomes
• mRNAcarries information for protein structure
  from DNA to a ribosome

73
(No Transcript)
74
Proteins

• Composed of amino acids
• Uses
• Enzymes
• Muscle
• Hair
• Nails
• Microtubules

75
Proteins
76
Proteins

• Protein Synthesis
• Transcription
• Copies information from DNA to mRNA
• mRNA then transported from DNA to a ribosome
• EukaryotesmRNA leaves nucleus to find ribosome
• Prokaryotesno nucleus, transcription and
  translation can occur simultaneously
• mRNA attaches to ribosome

77
Proteins

• Protein Synthesis
• Translation
• Information in mRNA used to construct specific
  sequence of amino acids
• Information is translated from language of
  nucleotides to the language of amino acids
• tRNA carries amino acids to ribosomes where they
  are linked together.

78
Proteins
79
Practice

• The substances in your body that are needed in
  order to grow and maintain life come from the
  nutrients in food. There are 6 classes of
  nutrients in food- carbohydrates, proteins,
  lipids, water, vitamins, and minerals. Of these,
  carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the major
  sources of energy for the body. Analyze and
  evaluate the sample daily diet of a 16 year old
  male. Be sure to include the following in your
  evaluation
• Total calories ingested
• Percent of calories contributed by each of the
  nutrients
• Compliance with the RDI standards set by the
  USDA.

80
Respiration and Photosynthesis

• Respiration
• Process of using energy from sugar (glucose) to
  produce ATP
• C6H12O6 6O2 ? 6CO2 6H2O 38ATP
• Occurs in mitochondria
• Occurs in both animals and plants
• ATP provides energy to do work in the cell
• When ATP is used, it is converted to ADP
  respiration then uses energy in sugars to convert
  ADP back to ATP by adding a phosphate.

81
Respiration and Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis
• Process of using energy from the sun to produce
  sugars (glucose)
• 6CO2 6H2O Light Energy ? C6H12O6 6O2
• Occurs in chloroplast of plants and some algae

82
Respiration and Photosynthesis

• How are photosynthesis and respiration related?
• The products of respiration are the reactants of
  photosynthesis the products of photosynthesis
  are the reactants of respiration.

83
(No Transcript)
84
Respiration and Photosynthesis

• Where and how are excess sugars stored in plants?
• Excess sugars are stored as starch in the roots.
  Starch is a polymer of glucose.

85
Respiration and Photosynthesis

• Where and how are excess sugars stored in
  animals?
• Excess sugars are stored as glycogen in the
  liver of animals. Glycogen is a polymer of
  glucose.

86
Respiration and Photosynthesis

• Construct a food chain that traces the flow of
  energy from the sun, to your lunch, through you,
  and to the muscles that make your arm move.
• Sun ? grass ?cow ? hamburger ?person
• In a person, hamburger is broken down/ digested
  sugars move to mitochondria in muscle, yield ATP
  through cellular respiration. ATP makes muscles
  move.

87
Genetics/ DNA

• Heredity and Mendelian Genetics
• Genetics The study of heredity (the passing of
  traits from parents to offspring)
• Gregor Mendel The father of genetics.
• DNA Consists of many genes
• Gene Stretch of DNA that codes for a given
  trait.
• Allele Alternate version of a gene

88
Genetics/ DNA

• Dominant and Recessive Traits
• Dominant Allele
• Gene that is fully expressed.
• Masks/ speaks louder than a recessive allele.
• Recessive Allele
• Masked/not expressed if dominant allele is
  present.
• Only expressed if dominant allele is absent.

89
Genetics/ DNA

• Genotype
• The genetic makeup of an organism
• Homozygous having two of the same allele
• Heterozygous having two different alleles.
• Homozygous Dominant having two dominant alleles
• Homozygous Recessive having two recessive
  alleles
• Heterozygous having one of each allele

90
Genetics/ DNA

• Phenotype
• The physical and physiological traits of an
  organism
• How the genes are expressed
• What you would see in a photograph

91
Example

• In peas, Y is a dominant allele that instructs
  for yellow seeds y is a recessive allele that
  produces green seeds. Given the following
  genotypes, fill in the term that best describes
  each, and then indicate what the phenotype of the
  organism will be.

92
DNA/ Genetics

• A Punnett Square can be used to predict the
  genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring
  produced by a given genetic cross.
• Generations
• Parental (P) The organisms involved in the
  initial cross
• First Filial (F1) The offspring of the Parental
  Generation
• Second Filial (F2) The offspring of the First
  Filial Generation

93
Example

• A chicken and a rooster mate. The chicken has
  white feathers and the rooster has brown
  feathers. Brown is dominant, and white is
  recessive. Assuming the rooster is heterozygous,
  predict the frequency of each genotype and
  phenotype in their offspring.

What is the cellular process that determines
which alleles an offspring will receive from
their parents? Meiosis
94
Practice

• 1. A plant that is homozygous dominant for
  height is crossed with a plant that is homozygous
  recessive. (T tall t short). Use a Punnett
  Square to predict the genotypic and phenotypic
  ratios of the F1 generation.

95
Practice

• 2. Using question number 1, what would be the
  genotypic and phenotypic ratios of a cross of two
  F1 individuals?

96
DNA/ Genetics

• Determining Sex
• Human male XY
• Human female XX
• Which parent determines the sex of a human
  offspring? Father
• What is the probability of having a boy? A girl?
  50/50

97
DNA/ Genetics

• Sex linked traits
• Carried on the X chromosome
• Example hemophilia, color blindness.
• Disorders occur more often in males than females.
  Why? Males have one X chromosome, so if one is
  defective, they do not have a backup copy as do
  females.

98
DNA/ Genetics

• Mutation
• A change in the base sequence of DNA.
• A change in DNA can lead to a change in the
  protein coded for by that gene.
• A change in the protein structure can lead to
  certain disorders, for example, sickle cell
  anemia.

99
The 6 Kingdoms

• Bacteria and Archaea
• Single Celled, prokaryote
• Cell wall
• Live in damp places or in water
• Asexual reproductionbinary fission
• Decomposers (breaks down organic material)
• Nitrogen fixation (rhizobium)
• Parasites (tuberculosis, cholera, strep-throat)
• Symbiotic relationships (humans)

100
The 6 Kingdoms
Complete the chart comparing bacteria and viruses
101
The 6 Kingdoms

• Protista
• Eukaryotes (has a nucleus)
• Single Celled
• Euglena
• Diatoms
• Dinoflagellates
• Ciliates
• Flagellates
• Sacrodina (amoeba)
• Sporozoa (malaria)
• Multi-celled
• Kelp
• Seaweed

102
The 6 Kingdoms

• Plants
• Multicellular, eukaryotic
• Examples

103
The 6 Kingdoms

• Animals
• Multicelled, eukaryotic
• Examples

104
The 6 Kingdoms

• Fungi
• Multicelled or single celled eukaryotic
• Examples

105
The 6 Kingdoms

• Plants
• Photosynthetic Autotrophs
• How are plant cells different from animal cells?
• Plant cells have a cell wall and vacuole Plant
  cells do not have centrioles and lysosomes.

106
The 6 Kingdoms

• Major parts of a plant
• Roots
• absorb water and nutrients from the soil.
• Store excess sugars (in the form of starch)
• Stem
• connects roots to the rest of the plant
• Leaves
• site of photosynthesis

107
The 6 Kingdoms

• Plants
• Transport in a plant
• Xylem transports water and nutrients from the
  roots to the rest of the plant
• Phloem transports products of photosynthesis to
  the rest of the plant.
• What environmental factors might affect a plant?
• Water supply, light, pH, acid rain, pollutants

108
Ecology

• Biome
• A major biological community that occurs over a
  large area of land.
• Determined primarily by precipitation
• Affected by elevation, latitude, soil type,
  geographical features.

109
Terrestrial Biomes
110
Terrestrial Biomes

• Tropical Rain Forest
• Rain 200-450 cm (80-180 in) per year (A lot of
  rain)
• Rich in number of species (many different types
  of organisms)
• Central America, South America, Africa, Asia
• Examples of Animals and Plants tree frog,
  monkeys, birds, green canopy

111
Terrestrial Biomes

• Desert
• Rain fewer than 25 cm (10 in) per year (Very
  little rain)
• Sparse vegetation
• May be warm or cold
• Examples of Animals and Plants Cactus, snakes,
  lizards, nocturnal animals

112
Terrestrial Biomes

• Savanna
• Rain 90-150 cm (35-60 in) per year
• Prevalent in Africa.
• Dry grassland
• Widely spaced trees animals active during rainy
  season
• Examples of Animals and Plants giraffes, zebras,
  grasses

113
Terrestrial Biomes

• Temperate Deciduous Forest
• Rain 75-250 cm (30-100 in)
• Mild Climate, plentiful rain
• Deciduous trees shed leaves in fall
• Warm summer, cold winter
• Mammals hibernate in winter, birds migrate
• Eastern US, Southeastern Canada, Europe, Asia
• Examples of Animals and Plants Bears, Deer, Oak
  Trees

114
Terrestrial Biomes

• Temperate Grasslands
• Halfway between equator and poles
• Interior of North America, Eurasia, South America
• Fertile soil, used for agriculture
• Examples of Animals and Plants Grazing animals
  (Bison), grasses, field mice

115
Terrestrial Biomes

• Coniferous Forest
• Cone bearing trees pine, spruce, fir, hemlock
• Pacific Northwest (temperate rain forests)
• Northern Coniferous Forest (Taiga)
• Cold and wet
• Winters long and cold precipitation in summer
• Coniferous forests (spruce and fir)
• Large mammals elk, moose, deer, wolves, bears,
  lynx, wolverines

116
Terrestrial Biomes

• Tundra
• Between taiga and poles
• 20 of Earths surface
• Rain less than 25 cm (10 in)
• Permafrost 1m deep (3ft)
• Examples of animals foxes, lemmings, owls,
  caribou
• Alpine Tundra
• Found at high latitudes
• High winds and cold temperatures

117
Aquatic Biomes

• Freshwater Communities
• Standing bodies of water
• lakes, ponds
• Moving bodies of water
• streams, rivers
• Wetlands
• Swamp, marsh, bog
• 2 of Earths surface
• Plants, fishes, arthropods, mollusks, microscopic
  organisms

118
Aquatic Biomes

• Marine Communities (salt water)
• 75 Earths surface covered by ocean
• Average depth 3km (1.9mi)
• Mostly dark, cold
• Photosynthetic organisms mostly towards surface
• Heterotrophic organisms throughout
• Fish, plankton (algae, diatoms, bacteria).

119
Flow of Energy Through an Ecosystem

• In order to live, organisms must obtain energy
  and nutrients
• Heterotrophs
• Obtain energy and nutrients from the food they
  eat
• Autotrophs
• Obtain energy from the sun
• Obtain nutrients from the soil.

120
Flow of Energy Through an Ecosystem

• Producer
• Uses energy from the sun and carbon from the
  environment to make its own food.
• Bottom of the food chain
• Why are producers necessary in any ecosystem?
  Make energy from the sun available/usable for
  heterotrophs.

121
Flow of Energy Through an Ecosystem

• Consumer
• Obtains energy through eating other organisms
• Herbivore eats only plants
• Carnivore eats only animals
• Omnivore eats both plants and animals
• Primary consumer eats producers
• Secondary consumer eats the consumers that eat
  the producers

122
Flow of Energy Through an Ecosystem

• Consumer
• Means of obtaining nutrition
• Predation
• Ecological interaction in which one organism
  (predator) feeds on another living
  organism(prey).
• Predator may or may not kill the prey.
• Scavenging
• An animal ingests dead plants, animals, or both.
• Vultures, termites, beetles

123
Flow of Energy Through an Ecosystem

• Consumer
• Means of obtaining nutrition
• Decomposer (Saprophytes)
• Breakdown (absorb nutrients from) non-living
• Organic materialcorpses, plants, waste of living
  organismsand convert them to inorganic forms.
• Bacteria, fungi
• Why are decomposers necessary in any
  ecosystem? Recycle nutrients.

124
Flow of Energy Through an Ecosystem

• Food Chain
• Linear pathway of energy transport through an
  ecosystem
• algae?krill?cod?seal?killer whale?bacteria
• Producers always come first in the food chain.
• Decomposers always come last in the food chain
  they will break down dead organisms and allow
  nutrients to be recycled.
• Arrows indicate the direction in which energy
  flows through the ecosystem.

125
(No Transcript)
126
Flow of Energy Through an Ecosystem

• Food Web
• A network of interconnected food chains in an
  ecosystem
• Producers are at the beginning.
• Decomposers are at the end.
• Arrows indicate the direction in which energy
  flows through the ecosystem.

127
(No Transcript)
128
Practice

• 1. Draw a food chain with at least five
  organisms. Label all organisms as being a
  producer, a consumer, or a decomposer. Make sure
  arrows are drawn to show how the energy is
  transferred.

129
Practice

• 2. How does a food chain prove the Law of
  Conservation of Matter and Energy?
• The energy is not disappearing but is being
  transferred from one organism to another.

130
Symbiosis

• Living Together
• Ecological interaction in which two or more
  species live together in a close, long-term
  association.

131
Symbiosis

• Mutualism
• Both partners benefit
• Ants and aphids
• Aphids supply sugars to ants ants protect aphids
  from insect predators

132
Symbiosis

• Commensalism
• One species benefits, the other is neither harmed
  nor helped
• Birds and bison
• Birds feed on insects flushed out of grass by
  grazing bison
• Barnacles and whales

133
Symbiosis

• Parasitism
• One species (the parasite) benefits the other
  (the host) is harmed.
• One organism feeds on and usually lives on or in
  another.
• Bacterial infection of animals
• Fungus infects trees
• Malaria

134
Practice
135
Cycles of Matter

• Carbon Cycle
• Carbon is the key ingredient in all living
  organisms
• Processes involved biological (example
  photosynthesis), geochemical (example release of
  CO2 by volcanoes), human activity (example
  burning of fossil fuels)

136
(No Transcript)
137
Cycles of Matter

• Nitrogen Cycle
• All organisms require nitrogen to build proteins
• Forms of nitrogen N2 in atmosphere NH3, NO3-,
  NO2- in wastes nitrate from fertilizers
• Some bacteria convert N2 into NH3 during nitrogen
  fixation.
• Some bacteria convert nitrates into N2 during
  denitrification.

138
(No Transcript)
139
Cycles of Matter

• Water Cycle
• All organisms require water to survive.
• Processes evaporation, transpiration,
  condensation, precipitation, seepage, runoff

140
(No Transcript)
141
Important Ecological Terms

• Abiotic factors
• Nonliving chemical or physical factors in the
  environment.
• Examples Air, soil, water, wind
• Biotic factors
• Living organisms in the environment.
• Examples Plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms

142
Important Ecological Terms

• Ecosystem
• All living and nonliving things in a given area
• Community
• All living organisms that inhabit a given area.
• A group of populations
• Population
• A group of individuals belonging to the same
  species that live together in the same area

143
Important Ecological Terms

• Competition
• Two or more organisms require the same resource
  that is in limited supply.
• Food, shelter, light, water, mates
• The strongest organism will win the competition
  and will be more likely to live and pass its
  genes on to the next generation (natural
  selection).

144
Important Ecological Terms

• Habitat
• Place or environment in which populations live
• Niche
• Role of a species in an ecosystem
• Relationships, activities, resources used

145
Important Ecological Terms

• Succession
• The series of predictable changes that occurs in
  a community over time
• Primary succession occurs on a surface where no
  soil exists. Example bare rock, areas covered
  by volcanic ash
• Secondary succession occurs in an area where a
  disturbances changes an existing community
  without destroying the soil. Example plowed
  land, area burned by wildfire

146
(No Transcript)
147
Adaptation and Natural Selection

• Natural Selection
• Idea first stated by Charles Darwin
• Survival of the fittest
• Organisms that are best adapted to their
  environment are more likely to live long enough
  to produce offspring and pass their traits on to
  the next generation.
• In terms of evolution and natural selection, the
  number one goal of any organism is to pass its
  genes on to the next generation through the
  production of offspring.

148
Adaptation and Natural Selection

• Selective Breeding
• Organisms with desired traits are chosen to mate
  so that their offspring also possess desired
  traits.
• Examples Pedigree dogs and cats

149
Adaptation and Natural Selection

• Adaptation
• Characteristic of an organism that helps it to
  better survive in a given environment.
• Types of adaptation
• Structural characteristics of an organisms
  anatomy. (wings on a bird)
• Physiological characteristics relating to
  internal body processes. (antibiotic resistance)
• Behavioral how an organism acts and responds to
  its environment (bird migration)

150
Adaptation and Natural Selection

• List three additional examples of adaptations and
  state the type of adaptation
• Webbed feet of a duck (structural)
• Ink from an squid (physiological/behavioral)
• Gills on a fish (structural/physiological)

151
Adaptation and Natural Selection

• Evolution
• Change in groups of organisms over a long period
  of time

152
Adaptation and Natural Selection

• Evolution
• Evidence for evolutionary changes
• Fossils (The deeper the fossil, the older it is)
• Comparative anatomy and the study of homologous
  structures (Example human arm, dolphin fin, bat
  wing, dog foreleg)
• Comparative Biochemistry (The fewer the
  differences in DNA, the closer the organisms are
  related)
• Comparative Embryology (Example all vertebrates
  have gill slits, tail, and notochord in early
  development)
• Direct evidence (Example bacteria can quickly
  become resistant to antibiotics)

153
Practice

• Classify the following adaptations as behavioral,
  structural, or physiological. Discuss the
  reason(s) for your choices.
• Bees build a hive- behavioral
• Young ducklings follow their mother- behavioral
• A woodpeckers beak is pointed and sharp-
  structural
• Flat shape of a leaf- structural

154
Human Systems and Basic Life Functions
155
Human Systems and Basic Life Functions
156
Human Systems and Basic Life Functions
157
Biology Exercises

• Answer the following questions in paragraph form.
  Your answers will not necessarily be essays
  they are short practice questions and may require
  one to three paragraphs. Answer on a separate
  piece of paper feel free to give me a copy of
  your work so I can look over it and give you
  feedback.

158
Biology Exercises

• 1. Compare and contrast a plant cell and an
  animal cell.

159
Biology Exercises

• 2. Compare and contrast prokaryotes and
  eukaryotes.

160
Biology Exercises

• 3. A plant is watered with highly concentrated
  salt water. Even though the plant is given
  plenty of water it soon begins to wilt. Explain
  why the plant is wilting.

161
Biology Exercises

• 4. A plant and an insect are placed in an
  air-tight container fresh oxygen is not allowed
  to enter the container. After about a week the
  plant died. A day later the insect died. If the
  insect had a sufficient amount of food and water,
  explain why the insect died.

162
Biology Exercises

• 5. In terms of the carbon cycle, explain how a
  carbon atom of one of your cells could have at
  one time been in George Washingtons body. Draw
  a food chain or food web to illustrate your point.

163
Biology Exercises

• 6. Explain how a molecule of water in your body
  could, at one time, have been located in a tree
  in your backyard. Use scientific terminology to
  explain the path the water molecule followed from
  the tree to your body.

164
Biology Exercises

• 7. An animal cell is only capable of cellular
  respiration a plant cell is capable of both
  cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Why do
  both organisms require cellular respiration? Why
  does only the plant cell require photosynthesis?