How to Write a Paper

1
How to Write a Paper

• A.P.A. Format

2
Getting Started

• Step One Generate a research question (what do I
  want to know?)
• Step Two Break it up into smaller questions (How
  will I find out?)
• Step Three Find information
• Step Four Organize information
• Step Five Formulate your argument

3
Finding Information

• Generate key words for Library/Internet research,
  based on your questions
• Get background info (5 Ws)
• Scan sources for important details BUT also read
  for context!
• Take organized notes!!
• DO NOT PLAGIARIZE!
• Use credible, reliable sources...

4
Evaluating your sources

• Author/Organization (Are they an expert? Do they
  have an agenda?)
• Language (Strong? Vague? Positive? Negative)
• Quality of argument (What information are they
  basing it on?)
• Sources sources (how/where did they get their
  information?)

5
Sources Strong vs. Shaky

• Shaky
• The first thing you find on Google
• Student Essays
• Open sites (e.g. Wikipedia can be a starting
  point)
• News, web sites or other media (SOMETIMES)

• Strong
• Peer-Reviewed Journals
• Academic Databases
• Encyclopedias
• News, web sites or other media (SOMETIMES)

6
Organizing your information

• Remember your questions
• Sort and sift Does this information answer the
  questions?
• Arrange information according to question or idea
• Draw conclusions
• Synthesize your information How does it answer
  the bigger research question?

7
Format

• Paper unlined paper, 8.5x 11 in size.
• Margins Leave 1 margin on all sides.
• Typed Times New Roman 12 font
• Double-space entire paper
• (Do not add extra spaces between paragraphs!!!)
• All paragraphs need to be indented.
• Only use one side of the paper do not write on
  the back.

8
Title Page

• Center the title approximately in the middle of
  the page.
• Do not underline or place quotation marks around
  the title unless it happens to be a quote or the
  title of a literary work.
• Capitalize the first letter in the title and all
  other words except prepositions.
• Double-space the following under the title
  Your Name, Course (Block), Teachers Name and
  date.

9
Title Page Page s

• Page s are to be placed in the upper right hand
  corner of every page, including the title page
  and reference page.
• Use an abbreviated title, which is 5 spaces to
  the left of the page number.
• Do not use periods or brackets around the .

10
Example of Title Page
Abb. Title
1 An Original Title Your Name ACS 11
A-Block Ms. Reid Due Date
11

• Do not use contractions in a formal essay.
  Instead of using dont use do not.
• Do not write in the first person. Instead of
  stating I think use One may think.
• Write out numbers from 1 to 10 and any other
  short number i.e. five instead of 5.

12
DO NOT PLAGIARIZE!!!

• Plagiarism will be dealt with seriously!
• You must give credit for other peoples ideas,
  opinions or theories!!!

13
Citations

• Use APA in-text citations, which will direct the
  reader to a list of references at the end of the
  paper. They identify the authors name, the year
  of publication. For direct quotes, also include
  the page number.
• Use citations when you
• Use quotes (exact words from someone else)
• Use ideas from someone else
• Summarize and paraphrase other sources
• Statistics
• Visual info. Such as tables, graphs, diagrams
  illustrations
• You do not need to use citations when
• It is your original thoughts and ideas
• Common Knowledge (Ottawa is the capital of Canada)

14
Examples of Citations

• Quotations
• (Author, date, page )
• No date (Author, page )
• No Author (Abb. Title, date, page )
• Web site Same, but instead of page use
  paragraph
• ( symbol for paragraph) (Reid, 2005, 5) or
  (Reid, 2005, para. 5)
• If the authors name is mentioned in the text
• Ms. Reid (2005) states "Africa is in an economic
  crisis due to European colonization and the
  aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (p.5).
• If the authors name is not mentioned in the
  text
• In a recent publication, one observer noted
  "Africa is in an economic crisis due to European
  colonization and the aftermath of the Triangular
  Trade " (Reid, 2005, p.5).

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Examples of Citations

• Summary or Paraphrase
• Same as above, but you do not need to use page
  s, unless using longer works.
• Two Authors
• (Clarkson McCall, 2005).
• Three to Five Authors
• Provide the last names of all the authors for the
  first citation. For subsequent citations of the
  same source, use only the first authors last
  name and abbreviation et al.
• Example (Reid et al., 2005)

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Examples of Citations

• If you use a source that was cited in another
  source (a secondary source), name the original
  source in your signal phrase. List the secondary
  source in your reference list and include it in
  your parenthetical citation, preceded by the
  words "as cited in." In the following example,
  Booth is the secondary source.
• Example
• Historian Ms. Reid states "Africa is in an
  economic crisis due to European colonization and
  the aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (as cited
  in Rhymes, 2005, p.5).

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Quotations

• Less than 40 words Include it within your
  paper, double spacing it the same as the paper,
  and simply enclosing it in quotation marks. Add
  the citation at the end of the quotation.
• Over 40 words Double-indent the quoted passage
  and single-space it. Do not use quotation marks.
  

18
Introduction

• Things not to do
• Do not say In this paper I will or The
  purpose of this essay
• Do not use a dictionary or encyclopedia
  definition to start your essay.

19
Introductionsome ideas

• The introduction should be designed to attract
  the readers attention and give an idea of the
  essays focus.
• Begin with an attention grabber.
• Option 1 Startling Information
• This information must be true and verifiable,
  and it doesnt need to be totally new to your
  readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact that
  explicitly illustrates the point you wish to
  make. If you use a piece of startling
  information, follow it with a sentence or two of
  elaboration.

20
Introductionsome ideas

• Option 2Anecdote
• An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point.
  Be sure your anecdote is short, to the point, and
  relevant to your topic. This can be a very
  effective opener for your essay, but use it
  carefully.
• Option 3 Dialogue
• An appropriate dialogue does not have to
  identify speakers, but the reader must understand
  the point you are trying to convey. Use only two
  or thee exchanges between speakers to make your
  point. Follow dialogue with a sentence or two of
  elaboration.

21
Introductionsome ideas

• Option 4 Summary InformationA few sentences
  explaining your topic in general terms can lead
  the reader gently to your thesis. Each sentence
  should become gradually more specific, until you
  reach your thesis.
• If the attention grabber was only a sentence or
  two, add one or two more sentences that will lead
  the reader from your opening to your thesis
  statement.
• Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.
  

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Thesis Statement

• The thesis statement tells the reader what the
  essay will be about, and what point you, the
  author, will be making. It maps out the paper as
  it suggests an order or direction for the papers
  development. A good thesis statement often
  answers the questions How? and Why?
• First gather the information that you would like
  to include in your essay
• Ask yourself what do the main ideas and
  supporting ideas that you have researched say
  about your topic?
• The thesis statement is the last sentence in your
  introductory paragraph.
• Restrict your thesis statement by reducing it to
  a more specific and manageable subject.

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Examples of Thesis Statements

• Aerobic exercise is good for you. (POOR)
• Aerobic exercise may be part of a weight loss
  program, but it is also the way to a healthy
  heart. (BETTER)
• A thesis is limited. This means that you zero in
  on the parts of your topic that you wish to focus
  on. Otherwise you could go on and on forever (in
  theory).
• Example
• There are many advantages to having professional
  sports teams in Chicago. (POOR)
• Having professional sports teams in Chicago has
  political, social and economic advantages.
  (BETTER)

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Examples of Thesis Statements

• A thesis is supported by strong arguments. Its
  important to discuss the best arguments in favor
  of your thesis in addition to addressing the
  strongest ones that go against it.
• Example You can present your opinion on a
  subject and someone else can say Okay, but what
  about If you can counter their argument, youve
  just strengthened your own. Imagine that you are
  having a debate, it is important to see both
  sides of the argument in order to best defend
  your own.

25
Examples of Thesis Statements

• A thesis takes some sort of stand. You may change
  your mind on a topic you are exploring but in the
  end, you must draw your own conclusions and
  support them by research.
• Your thesis represents where you stand in
  relation to a topic or issue.

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Examples of Thesis Statements

• A thesis should be arguable. Reasonable people
  should be able to disagree with your thesis. Its
  not interesting of people cant dispute it. It
  needs to be controversial enough so people want
  to continue reading.
• Example
• Sir John A. MacDonald was the first Prime
  Minister of Canada is a fact people may respond
  to by saying, Yeah, so what?

27
Example of How to Build a Thesis Statement

• Half of all drug addicted babies are likely to
  grow up in homes lacking good cognitive and
  emotional stimulation and would benefit from
  federal government financed programs to help with
  their care.
• Notice that this statement meets the five
  guidelines reviewed earlier!

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Example of How to Build a Thesis Statement

• Programs for Drug Addicted Babies
• More attention should be paid to the environment
  drug addicted babies grow up in.
• Experts estimate that half of drug addicted
  babies will grow up in home environments lacking
  rich cognitive and emotional stimulation.

29
Writing the Body Paragraphs

• The topic you have chosen must now be explained,
  described, or argued.
• Each main idea that you wrote down in your
  diagram or outline will become one of the body
  paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas,
  you will have three or four body paragraphs.

30
Elaboration

• Elaboration can be further description or
  explanation or discussion.
• Supporting Point
• Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking
  public transportation rather than driving.
• Elaboration
• Less driving time means less maintenance expense,
  such as oil changes.
• Of course, less driving time means savings on
  gasoline as well.
• In many cases, these savings amount to more than
  the cost of riding public transportation.

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Each body paragraph will have the same basic
structure.

• Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in
  sentence form.If your main idea is "reduces
  freeway congestion," you might say thisPublic
  transportation reduces freeway congestion.
• Next, write down each of your supporting points
  for that main idea, but leave four or five lines
  in between each point.
• In the space under each point, write down some
  elaboration for that point.

32
Transitional Devices

• Good transitions can connect paragraphs
• To Add
• and, again, and then, besides, equally
  important, finally, further, furthermore, nor,
  too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in
  addition, first (second, etc.)
• To Compare
• whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however,
  nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison,
  where, compared to, up against, balanced against,
  vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile,
  after all, in contrast, although this may be true
• To Prove
• because, for, since, for the same reason,
  obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover,
  besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any
  case, that is

33
Transitional Devices

• To Show Exception
• yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of,
  despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes
• To Show Time
• immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few
  hours, finally, then, later, previously,
  formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then
• To Repeat
• in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as
  has been noted
• To Emphasize
• definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact,
  indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively,
  naturally, surprisingly, always, forever,
  perennially, eternally, never, emphatically,
  unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly,
  undeniably, without reservation

34
Transitional Devices

• To Show Sequence
• first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and
  so forth. next, then, following this, at this
  time, now, at this point, after, afterward,
  subsequently, finally, consequently, previously,
  before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus,
  therefore, hence, next, and then, soon
• To Give an Example
• for example, for instance, in this case, in
  another case, on this occasion, in this
  situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to
  illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate
• To Summarize or Conclude
• in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude,
  in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said,
  hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result,
  consequently, on the whole

35
Finishing touches of Body Paragraphs

• Once you have fleshed out each of your body
  paragraphs, one for each main point, you are
  ready to continue.

36
Conclusion

• The conclusion brings closure to the reader,
  summing up your points and providing a final
  perspective on your topic
• This paragraph should allude back to your
  introductory paragraph and restate your thesis
  statement (do not duplicate the one from your
  introductory)

37
Reference Page

• At the end of the report (on a separate piece of
  paper), center the title References at the top of
  the page. Do not italicize, underline or use
  quotation marks around the title.
• Number the page of your reference list the same
  as the rest of your paper. (shorten title and 5
  spaces and then page )
• Arrange all sources you used in a single
  alphabetical list by authors last name or by
  title if no author is given.
• Double-space all entries in your reference list.
• DO not indent the first line, but always indent
  the second or third lines (5 spaces). This is
  called Hanging Indentation.
• Always leave 1 space after commas and 2 spaces
  after periods and colons.
• Do not them.

38
Reference Samples

• Book
• Author. (Date). Title. Place of Publication
  Publisher.
• Editor
• Name of Editor. (Ed.). (Date). Title. Place
  of Publication Publisher.
• Electronic Encyclopedia
• Title of Article. (Date). Name of Encyclopedia.
  Publisher.
• Encyclopedia
• Author (if given). (Date). Title of Article.
  Name of Encyclopedia.
• Volume , Pages.
• Magazine/Newspaper
• Author (if given). (Date, Month). Title of
  Article. Name of
• Magazine/Newspaper, Pages.

39
Reference Samples

• Internet Resources
• Author. (Date). Title of Article. Retrieved
  September 20th,
• 2005 from URL
• Example
• Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Notable People in
  Psychology of
• Religion. Retrieved August 3, 2001, from
• http//www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm
• No Date
• Nielsen, M. E. (n.d.). Notable People in
  Psychology of Religion. Retrieved
• August 3, 2001, from  http//www.psywww.com/psyre
  lig/psyrelpr.htm
• No Author, No Date
• Gender and society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3,
  2001, from

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Title 5 References DiLorenzo, Thomas.
(2002). The Economics of Slavery. Retrieved
September 17th, 2007, from http//www.lewr ckwe
ll.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo29.html Dodson,
Howard. (2003). How Slavery Helped Build a
World Economy. Retrieved on September 17th,
2007, from http//news.nationalgeographic.com/
news/ 2003/01/0131_030203_jubilee2.html Field,
Ron. (1995). African Peoples of the Americas.
Great Britain Cambridge University
Press.. Slavery. (n.d.) Retrieved on September
17th, 2007, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
slavery The Economics of Slavery. (n.d.)
Retrieved on September 17th, 2007, from
www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/ article_dis
play.cfm?HHID80
41
Editing

• Check spelling and grammar.
• Read your essay out loud to yourself and then to
  someone else
• Make sure you do not have run-on sentences and
  that you have organized paragraphs!!!
• Make sure that your essay flows and is
  interesting!!!

42
Congratulations!

• Once you have checked your work and perfected
  your formatting, your essay is finished.