Segment 1:

1
Cognitive Perspective

• Segment 1
• Biological Rhythms and Mental States
• Segment 2
• Sensation and Perception
• Segment 3
• Memory
• Cognitive Development
• Thinking and Intelligence
• Emotion

2
Memory

• Memory is defined as an organism's ability to
  store, retain, and recall information.
• Three main stages
• Encoding
• Processing transduced information.
• Storage
• Creation of a permanent record.
• Retrieval
• Calling back the stored information.

3
Memory

• Sensory Memory (Sensory Register)
• Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli.
• Working Memory (Short-term Memory)
• Preserves recently perceived events or
  experiences for less than a minute without
  rehearsal.
• Long-term Memory
• Stores material organized according to meaning.

4
Memory

• Long-Term Memory
• Declarative (explicit) Stores facts
• Semantic Memory of meanings and understandings
• Episodic Memory of events, times, places, and
  emotions
• Autobiographical Memory
• Procedural (implicit)
• Long-term memory of skills and procedures.
• How to knowledge.

5
Memory Models

• Models of memory provide abstract representations
  of how memory is believed to work.
• Dominant models
• Multi-Store
• Working
• Levels of Processing

6
Memory models

• Multi-Store Model (Atkinson-Shiffrin Model, 1968)
• Long-Term Memory
• Episodic
• Procedural
• Rehearsal is its mechanism.
• Flashbulb Memory
• Working Memory (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)
• Short-Term Memory
• Central executive-attention
• Phonological loop-stores sound information
• Visuo-spatial sketchpad-stores visual and spatial
  information
• Levels of Processing Memory Model (Craik and
  Lockhart, 1972)
• Depth of processing is paramount

7
Forgetting

• Repression
• Interference Theory
• Cue-dependent forgetting or retrieval failure
• Encoding specificity principle

8
Cognitive Development

• Jean Piaget
• Genetic Epistemology The study of the
  development of knowledge
• Action Knowledge
• Concept
• Stage approach to development.
• All children pass through a series of four
  universal stages.
• Stages are in a fixed order from birth through
  adolescence
• Stage 1 Sensorimotor
• Stage 2 Preoperational
• Stage 3 Concrete operational
• Stage 4 Formal operational

9
Cognitive Development

• Stage Progression
• Children will reach an appropriate level of
  development.
• Exposed to relevant experiences.
• If the child fails to receive such experiences
  then they are assumed to be incapable of reaching
  their cognitive potential.
• The quality of these experiences is crucial
• Schema/Schemes
• Assimilation
• Accommodation

10
Cognitive Development

• Ormrod (2004)
• People often remember things in physical
  situations according to schemas, rather than
  remembering the actual objects that existed
• Brewer Treyens (1981)
• 30 students placed in office.
• 9 students remembered seeing books.
• No students remembered the skull.
• No students remembered the tennis racket.

11
Thinking and Intelligence

• Cognitive
• Integrated mental network of
• Knowledge, beliefs, and expectations.
• Concerning a particular topic or aspect of the
  world.
• Makes life easier
• Mental Images
• Mental representation that
• Mirrors or resembles the thing it represents.
• Includes sounds, pictures, feelings, smells and
  tastes.

12
Mental Representation

• Concept
• Dog Boston Terrier, Poodle, Doberman
• Emotion Joy, Sadness, Anger
• Mental category that groups objects, relations,
  activities, abstractions, or qualities having
  common properties.
• Simplify and summarize information about the
  world.
• Allows for fast decision making.
• Not all aspects of a concept apply to all
  elements within the concept.
• Not all dogs have long tails.
• Prototype An especially representative example
  of a concept.
• What would best represent the essence of bird
• Penguin, Eagle, or Flamingo?

13
Automatic Process

• Subconscious processes
• Mental processes occurring outside of conscious
  awareness but accessible to consciousness when
  necessary.
• Enable us to perform more tasks at once, and work
  simultaneously
• Listening to music and reading while drinking and
  talking on the cell
• Volition (mental overload)
• Nonconscious processes
• Mental processes occurring outside of and not
  available to conscious awareness.
• Ever had a solution to a problem pop into your
  head later on?
• Insight/Intuition
• Implicit learning
• Learning that occurs when you acquire knowledge
  about something without being aware of how you
  did so and without being able to state exactly
  what it is you have learned.
• Chess

14
Heuristics

• Rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or
  guides problem solving but does not guarantee an
  optimal solution.
• Dialectical Reasoning Process in which opposing
  facts or idea are weighed and compared with a
  view to determining the best solution or
  resolving differences.
• Availability Heuristic Tendency to judge the
  probability of a type of event by how easy it is
  to think of examples or instances.
• More people die from auto accidents and yet we
  are all scared of flying, makes life easier and
  faster.
• Schwartz (1991)
• Asked participants for six examples of when they
  had been assertive (most could think of six).
• Then asked a separate group for twelve examples
  (few people could).
• He then asked both how assertive they were.
• The six people scored themselves higher because
  their available data had a greater proportion of
  being assertive.
• Mental Set Tendency to solve problems using
  procedures that worked before on similar
  problems, to use past heuristics.

15
Bias

• Hindsight Bias
• Tendency to overestimate ones ability to have
  predicted an event once the outcome is known.
• I knew it all along phenomenon.
• Confirmation Bias
• Tendency to look for or pay attention only to
  information that confirms ones own beliefs.
• Illusory Correlation
• Redelmeier and Tversky (1996) assessed 18
  arthritis patients over 15 months.
• Took comprehensive meteorological data.
• All the patients were certain that their
  condition was correlated with the weather.
• In fact the actual correlation was close to zero. 

16
False Consensus Effect

• Tendency to overestimate the degree to which our
  own behavior, attitudes, and beliefs are shared
  by other people.
• Reason
• Our friends are like us.
• Availability heuristic.
• Reinforces our own motivations.
• Strongest when
• Comes from strong situational factors.
• It is very important to the person.
• We are sure we are correct.
• Research
• (Ross et al) Students to walk around campus with
  a sign saying Eat at Joes.
• Agree 62 said other people would agree to carry
  the sign.
• Disagree 67 said that they would not carry the
  sign.
• Cloud-9 Effect
• Romantic relationships between people often start
  off with a glow of excitement.

17
Need for Cognitive Consistency

• Cognitive Dissonance
• State of tension that occurs when a person
  simultaneously holds two cognitions that are
  psychologically inconsistent.
• When a persons belief is incongruent with his or
  her behavior.
• Reducing Dissonance
• 1. Reject the belief
• 2. Change behavior
• 3. Deny the evidence
• 4. Rationalize (Smoking)
• Postdecision Dissonance
• Tension that occurs when you believe you may have
  made a bad decision.
• Buyers remorse
• How do you relieve this dissonance?
• Justification of effort
• Tendency of individuals to increase their liking
  for something that they have worked hard for or
  suffered to attain.
• Common form of dissonance reduction.

18
Emotion

• What is emotion?
• Try describing an emotion without using other
• emotions, is it difficult?
• Definition A feeling state involving thoughts,
• physiological changes, and an outward expression
• or behavior.
• What comes first Physiological Arousal
• Thought
• Behavior

19
Emotion

• James-Lange Theory
• Event causes physiological arousal (and behavior
  in many cases).
• We interpret the arousal.
• We experience emotion.
• If the arousal is not noticed or is not given any
  thought, then we will
• not experience emotion.
• Cannon-Bard Theory
• We experience both physiological arousal and
  emotional reaction at same time.
• This gives no attention to the role of thoughts
  or outward behavior.

20
Emotion

• Schachter-Singer Theory
• Event causes physiological arousal.
• Identify a reason for this arousal.
• You are able to experience and label the emotion.
• This theory requires you to understand what is
  happening to you in the environment before you
  can label the emotion.
• Lazarus Theory
• A thought must come before any emotion or
  physiological arousal.
• You must think about your situation before you
  can experience an emotion.

21
Emotion

• Facial Feedback Theory
• Emotion is the experience of changes in our
  facial muscles.