Graduation Test Review

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Graduation Test Review

• Biology

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Characteristics of Living things

• Reproduce
• Respond to Stimuli
• Ingest food for energy
• Made of cells
• Change with time
• Contain genetic code
• Growth and development
• Carry out respiration
• Excrete waste materials

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Branches of Biology

• Ecology
• Anatomy
• Microbiology
• Genetics
• Physiology
• Zoology
• Botany
• Cytology

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• Know the Scientific Method of solving problems
• Know how to interpret data arriving at
  explanations, inferences, or hypotheses from the
  data that have been graphed or placed in a table.
• Know the basic rules required in all science
  labs.
• Know the Metric System of measurement
• Mass- grams (triple Beam balance), Volume- liters
  (Graduated Cylinder), Time- seconds, Length-
  meters (Metric Ruler)

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Types of Microscopes

• Compound light
• Electron Microscope
• Transmission
• Scanning

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Basic Concepts of Experimental Design

• Hypothesis educated guess
• Variable The factors that could vary or be
  changed in an experiment.
• Independent variable the variable that is
  changed by the experimenter.
• Dependent variable the variable that responds.
• Constants All factors that were kept the same
  and have a fixed value.
• Control the group that is used as a standard for
  comparison in an experiment.
• Experiment testing a hypothesis through
  manipulation and control of independent variable
  and noting the effects on the dependent variable.

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Cellular levels of Organization

• Atoms
• ?
• Molecules
• ?
• Macromolecules
• ?
• Organelles
• ?
• Cells Ex. Red blood cell
• ?
• Tissues Epithelial tissue
• ?
• Organs Heart
• ?
• Organ systems Circulatory system
• ?
• Organism Human, cat, dog

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Four Classes of Macromolecules/organic compounds)

• Inorganic- lack carbon- most important is water-
  polar, cohesive, adhesive
• Organic contain carbon
• Carbohydrate sugars? Glucose, starch
• Lipids fatty acids?fats, lipids, steroids,
  cholesterol, waxes (hydrophilic, hydrophobic)
• Protein Amino acids? Enzymes (peptide bonds)
• Nucleic acid Nucleotides ? DNA and RNA

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Functions of Macromolecules

• Macromolecule Function
• Carbohydrates Provide energy
• Lipids Stored energy, Insulation, Cushion
• Protein Structural components, Defense
• Nucleic acids
• DNA Store genetic information
• RNA Make (synthesize) protein

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What are Enzymes? How do they break food down?

• Enzymes Biological catalysts?speed up chemical
  reactions
• very specific to SUBSTRATES
• Have active sites
• Reusable
• ACTIVATION ENERGYamount of energy needed to
  start a reaction.
• DENATURATION destroy a protein structure

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Ecology is the study of interactions between
organisms and their environment.

• Biotic factors living things that influence an
  ecosystem.
• Abiotic factors nonliving factors that
  influence an ecosystem.

• Habitat where an organism lives.
• Niche an organisms purpose (includes food,
  space, reproduction, how it interacts with
  other organisms

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Levels of Biological Organization Organism -
Population - Community - Ecosystem - Biome -
Biosphere
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Ecological Pyramids

• Energy transfer of energy from one level to
  another. (only 10 used, 90 lost as heat)
• Biomass mass of organic material at each level
• Number relative number of organic materials.
• Food Chain- plants?fish?Snake ?Hawk
• ? ? ?
  ?
• producer primary secondary Tertiary
• consumer consumer
  consumer
• ? ?
  ?
• herbivore Carnivore
  Omnivores

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Community Interactions

• Predation organism that does the killing is
  the predator. Organism that is the food is the
  prey.
• Ex. Cat and mouse
• Parasitism 1 organism lives on or inside
  another organism and harms it.
• Ex. tapeworm

• Symbiosis 2 species living closely together
• Mutualism both species benefit
• Ex. Flower insect
• Commesalism one member benefits while the other
  is neither helped nor harmed.
• Ex barnacles on whales skin

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Cell

• Prokaryotic Cells (ex Bacteria)
• No true nucleus
• No membrane bound organelles
• Eukaryotic Cells (ex Humans, Plants)
• Larger
• Nucleus
• Membrane bounded organelles

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Review Questions

• Which of the following contains a nucleus?
• A. Prokaryotes B. Bacteria
• C. Eukaryotes D. Organelles
• Which organism is not eukaryotic?
• A. Bacteria B. Animal Cell
• C. Plant Cell C. Protist

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What is the cell Theory?

• All living things are made of cells
• Cells are the basic units of structure and
  function of life processes
• All cells come from other cells of the same kind.
• ROBERT HOOKE DISCOVERED THE CELL

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Cell Organelles

• Golgi Apparatus Packages and transports
  materials
• Lysosomes Removes waste
• Cilia/ Flagella Moves the entire cell
• Nucleus contains DNA

• Cell Membrane Maintains shape and allows
  substances to enter or leave cell
• Ribosomes Make proteins
• Endoplasmic Reticulum makes proteins (rough)
  and transports them.

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Cell Model
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Review Questions

• Which organelles help provide cells with energy?
• A. Mitochondria and chloroplasts
• B. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
• C. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• D. Golgi apparatus and ribosomes
• Which cell structure contains the cells genetic
  material and controls the cells activities?
• A. Organelle B. Nucleus
• C. Cell envelope D. Cytoplasm

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How materials cross the cell Memebrane

• Passive (no energy needed)
• Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Facilitated Transport

• Active Transport (energy and proteins needed.
• Sodium potassium pump

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What is Homeostasis?

• Maintain a stable environment
• Or maintain an equlibrium
• NOTE The cell membrane is SEMIPERMEALBE OR
  SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE (because it does not ALLOW
  ALL MATERIALS TO PASS THROUGH)

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The Three Osmotic conditions

• Hyper above Iso same Hypo below
• cell shrivels shrinks Cell swells may
  burst
• TERM- PLASMOLYSIS CYTOLYSIS

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Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

• Photosynthesis Converting Light energy into
  food. ( Chloroplast)
• 6H2O 6CO2 Light energy 6O2 C6H12O6
• reactants products
• Cellular Respiration - Converting food into
  chemical energy ( Mitochondria)
• C6H12O6 6O2 6H2O 6CO2 ATP

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What is the energy molecule of living things?

• ATP Adenosine Tri-phosphate
• ATP releases energy ATP?ADP P
• To make ATP ADP P ? ATP
• Plants autotrophs (producers)
• Animals heterotrophs (consumers)
• Aerobic respiration need oxygen
• Anaerobic respiration no oxygen needed

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Mitosis vs. Meiosis

• Mitosis
• Cell Division
• In humans start at 46 chromosomes end at 46
  chromosomes
• 2 new daughter cells
• Meiosis
• Formation of the sex cells gametes
• Start at 46 chromosomes end at 23 chromosomes
• 4 new daughter cells

How cells divide
Mitosis vs. meiosis
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What is the Cell Cycle? the life cycle of the
cell from birth to death

• Interphase- longest phase
• G1- Growth
• S (synthesis) DNA duplicates
• G2- final growth before division

• Cell division- very short
• Mitosis or M-Phase (asexual- budding, vegetative
  propagation)
• Or
• Meiosis (sexual produce gametes
• ?
• Sperm and egg
• Cytokinesis division of the cytoplasm

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Mitosis vs Meiosis

• Cell division cell type of daughter
  of
• cells chromosomes
• Mitosis somatic(body) 2
  46(diploid)
• Meiosis gametes(sex) 4
  23(haploid)

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Phase of Mitosis or Meiosis

• Prophase - prepare
• Metaphase middle
• Anaphase apart
• Telophase two
• PMAT

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CAN YOU IDENTIFY THE NEXT TWO STAGES OF MITOSIS?
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NAME THE STAGES
PROPHASE
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NAME THE STAGES
METAPHASE
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NAME THE STAGES
ANAPHASE
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NAME THE STAGES
TELOPHASE
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NAME THE STAGES
ANAPHASE
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NAME THE STAGES
PROPHASE
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Review Questions

• During which phase of meiosis does crossing over
  occur in?
• A. Prophase 1 B. Prophase 2
• C. Prophase D. Anaphase 1
• If a cell has 12 chromosomes, how many
  chromosomes will each of its daughter cells have
  after mitosis?
• A. 6 B. 12 C. 24 D. 48
• Unlike mitosis, meiosis results in the formation
  of
• A. 2 haploid B. Four diploid sex cells
• C. 2 diploid cells D. Four haploid sex cells

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Punnett Squares

• A device used to predict the possible genotypes
  of offspring.
• Genotype - the genetic information that you
  cant see (made up of 2 alleles)
• Heterozygous Bb
• Homozygous BB or bb
• Phenotype traits that you can physically see.

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Punnett Square Example

• Brown hair is dominant to blonde hair.
• What is the percent chance of a couple who is
  heterozygous for brown hair and homozygous for
  blonde hair to have a child who has blonde hair
• Geno B b Pheno
• 50 hetero b Bb bb 50 brown
• 50homo rec b Bb bb 50 blonde

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Classification

• 7 Levels of classification1. Kingdom2. Phylum
• 3. Class 4. Order 5. Family 6. Genus 7.
  Species
• King Phillip Came OverFrom Germany Swimming

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These are grouped into 3 Domains more general
than kingdoms

• Bacteria Eubacteria
• Archaea Archaebacteria
• Eukarya Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia

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Six Kingdoms

• Monerans
• 1. Eubacteria (New Bacteria)
• 2. Archbacteria (Old Bacteria)
• Eukaryotes
• 3. Protista (Amoeba or Slime Mold)
• 4. Fungi (Mushroom or Yeast)
• 5. Plantai (Fern or Rose)
• 6. Animalia (Human, Insect, worms, or sponges)

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Review Questions

• In Linnaeuss system of classification, how many
  taxonomic categories were there?
• A. One B. Five C. Six D. Seven
• All organisms in the kingdoms Protist, Plantai,
  Fungi, and Animalia are
• A. Multicellular organisms B. Eukaryotes
• C. Photosynthetic organisms D. Prokaryotes

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Figure 18-5 Classification of Ursus arctos
Section 18-1
Coral snake
Abert squirrel
Sea star
Grizzly bear
Black bear
Giant panda
Red fox
KINGDOM Animalia
PHYLUM Chordata
CLASS Mammalia
ORDER Carnivora
FAMILY Ursidae
GENUS Ursus
SPECIES Ursus arctos
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DNA AND ITS BASES
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MAKE-UP OF DNA
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From DNA to Protein

• Replication DNA copies itself
• DNA? mRNA ? Protein
• ? tRNA/rRNA ?
• Transcription Translation
• ? takes place in ?occurs in
• NUCLEUS CYTOPLASM
• Nitrogen Bases Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine,
  Thymine, and Uracil (only in RNA)
• Complimentary pair DNA?CG, AT
• RNA? CG, AU
  
• Nucleotide Phosphate, Sugar, and Nitrogen base