COMPLETE HISTOLOGY FOR MEDICAL STUDENTS

1
DifferentialHistology

• Quick Learning
• Technique

2
LAB TECHNIQIQUES
3
Fixation

• If pemanent section is desired it must be fixed
• If can be does by chemical or physical methotheds
• Usually formaldehyde or gluteraldehyde

4
Embedding

• Embedding materials include parrifin and plastic
  resin
• Parrifins is used for light microoscopy
• Resins are used for light and electron microscopy

5
Staining

• Tissues are colorless so we stain them
• Basis (basophilic dyes) are blue
• Nucleic acid
• Glycoprotiens
• glycoaminoglycans
• Acid (eosinic dyes) are red
• Mitichondria
• Collegen
• Secretory granules

6
Staining Continued

• H E Stain- a common stain with both
  characteristics
• RNA portions of cytoplasmic components
• Mallory Stain
• Example diffientiating collagen from muscle
  tissue

7
REVIEW MICROSCOPE

• Please review Microscope capabilities

8
Chemistry

• Remember that cells have
• Proteins
• Phospatases, Peroxidases, and Dehyrogenases
• Polysacchrides
• Glycoprotiens, Glycoaminoglycans
• Lipds

9
Fractionation

• By size
• Using a isolation via by differential centrifuge
• Example
• Nuclei
• Mitochondria
• ribosomes
• microsomes

10
Hybridizations

• Gel Electrophoresis most common for proteins,
  DNA, RNA
• Look up Western, Northern, Southern Blot

11
Epithelium

• It is found on the surfaces of the body
• Both inner and outer
• It covers the skin and mucous membranes and forms
  glands
• All cells rest on a basal lamina
• EPITHELIUM IS AVASCULAR
• NUTIENTS VIA DIFFUSION

12
Basal Lamina

• Most epithelial cells are separated from
  connective tissue by a sheet of extracellular
  cells with very fine matrix of (type IV collagen,
  laminins, and heperan sulfate and reticular
  cells) called
• LAMINA DENSA

13
Basal Lamina
14
Fuctions of Epithelium

• Selective barriers
• Secretion
• Absorption
• Protection
• Sensory

15
Intracellular Adhesions

• Many membrane associated structure contribute to
  the communication betweens cell
• Zona Occludens
• Zona Adherans
• Gap Junctions
• Desmosomes

16
Graphic Intracellular Adhesions
17
EM of Intracellular Adhesions
18
Zona Adherans

• Principal interactions of structural proteins at
  cadherin-based adherens junction. Actin filaments
  are associated with adherens junctions in
  addition to several other actin-binding proteins
  such as vinculin. The head domain of vinculin
  associates to E-cadherin via a-, ß - and ?
  -catenins. The tail domain of vinculin binds to
  membrane lipids and to actin filaments.
• Adherens junctions (or zonula adherens,
  intermediate junction, or "belt desmosome) are
  protein complexes that occur at cellcell
  junctions in epithelial tissues, usually more
  basal than tight junctions.

19
Zona Adherans
20
Zona Occludans

• Tight junctions are composed of a branching
  network of sealing strands, each strand acting
  independently from the others. Therefore, the
  efficiency of the junction in preventing ion
  passage increases exponentially with the number
  of strands

21
Tight Junctions (Occludens)
22
Glycoprotiens

• There are also various Glycoproteins that are
  VERY IMPORTANT in the attachment of basal lamina
  cells
• Fibronectin
• Laminin
• Integrins
• It is also important that you know about
  vinculin, heparan sulfate, and the other
  proteoglycans

23
(No Transcript)
24
Function

• Please look the function of all intracellular
  units
• It is important for the exam

25
Microvilli

• Microvilli are found on the cell surface
• They are mainly absorptive cell, so you see them
  in the gut lining

26
Cilia

• Cilia have a back and forward movement, which
  coordinate fluid and particulate matter over the
  direction of the epithelial surface
• They require ATP
• They are found primarily in the respiratory tract

27
Stereo-cilia

• Stereo-cilia are long non-motile extension that
  actually increase cell surface area
• They are found mainly in the epididymis and
  ductus deferens in the male

28
Endothelial Functions

• Pseudostratified---Respiratory
• Simple Columnar--- Intestines
• Simple Cuboidal---Ducts
• Simple Squamous--- Aorta, large vessels
• Stratified Columnar--- Male Urethra
• Stratifies Cuboidal--- Ducts, salivary glands
• Stratified Squamous---Vagina, Esophagus

29
Squamous epithelium

• Flattened inter-locking cell (squames)
• Nuclei bulge (fried egg appearance)
• Regenerate by division of differentiated cell
• Found
• Alveoli of lungs
• Glomeruli of kidney
• Various mesothelial and endothelial lining

30
Simple Squamous Epithelium
31
Mesothelium

• Is a name for simple squamous epithelium that
  lines body cavities
• PLEURA- lines the thoracic cavities
• PERICARDIUM-lines the pericardial cavity
• PERITONIUM-lines the abdominal cavity

32
Mesothelium
33
Bladder Wall Section
34
Lamina Propia

• Many areas of Epithelium that line the bodies
  cavities have a layer call the lamina propria
  between the epithelial lining and the connective
  tissue

35
Lamina Propia
36
Transitional epithelium

• Probobly 4-6 cell thick
• Cuboidal when relaxed
• Basal cells
• Basophilic due to numerous ribosomes
• Uninucleate and diploid
• Surface cells
• Larger cells formed by fusion of 2-4 cells
• Multinucleate or polyploid

37
Cuboidal Epithelium

• Cells appear square in cross section
• Nuclei are usually central and round
• Regenerate by division of differentiated cells
• Found in parenchyma of many organs
• Thyroid Gland
• Kidney tubules
• Ducts
• Surface of the Ovary

38
Cuboidal Epithelium
39
Columnar epithelium

• Cells appear rectangular in cross section and
  polygonal when viewed from the surface
• Nuclei are lined up in a row toward the base of
  the cell
• Locations
• Lines a large portion of the digestive tract
• Found in large ducts
• Lines uterus
• Lines central canal of the spinal chord

40
Epididymis
41
Epithelial Layer in Human Uterus
42
PseudostratifiedColumnar epithelium

• All cells in contact with the basal lamina, yet
  do to variable shape not all reach the surface
• Nuclei are at different levels making epithelium
  appear stratified
• Locations
• Respiratory tract form the larynx through the
  bronchi
• Lines the male urethral tract
• Lines the parotid duct
• Lines the auditory tube and portions of the inner
  ear

43
Ciliated Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
44
TRACHEAL MUCOSA
45
Brush Border
46
Glands
47
Secretory Gland Types
48
Gland Types
49
NEOPLASTIC PROGRESSION

• Normal Cells--? apical differentation
• Cell increase in number?hyperplasia
• Change in size, shape?dysplasia
• In situ?clumped chromatin, have not invaded
  basement membrane
• Cells invade basement membrane using collagenages
  and hydrolases
• Metastatis?spreads (neoplasia)

50
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
51
Connective tissue Function

• Supports parenchyma of organs
• Binds structures together
• Induces polarity
• Stabilizes basal surface
• Organizes cytoskeleton
• Influences migration
• Influences development and profileration

52
MACROPHAGES AND PLASMA CELLS
53
FREE CELL DISCUSSED IN HEMATOLOGY

• IN MUCH MORE DETAIL
• Remember blood is a connective tissue

54
Fibrin Clot
55
Rouleaux of Erythrocytes
56
PLASMA CELLS
57
Promyeloblast
58
Normal RBCs
59
(No Transcript)
60
Connective Tissues

• Connective tissues originate from Mesenchyme.
• This comes from the MESODERM

61
FIBROBLASTS

• Like Hematopoietic stem cell for blood,
  Fibroblast are the a base cell for connective
  tissue.
• Other cells that come from undifferentiated cells
  are
• Adipocytes
• Osteoblasts
• Chondrocytes

62
(No Transcript)
63
Loose irregular connective tissue (AREOLAR TISSUE)

• Binds while allowing movement
• In stroma of most organs
• Subcutaneous tissue where fat is lacking
• Surrounds vessels and nerves

64
Loose Connective Tissue
65
Reticular Connective Tissue

• Forms a 3-D meshwork to hold lymphocytes or bone
  marrow cells in lymphoid tissue and bone marrow
  respectively
• Location
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Bone marrow
• Structure
• Rich in reticular fibers
• Cells are specialized fibroblast (reticular
  cells)

66
Reticular Connective Tissue
67
Mucous Connective Tissue

• Embryonic tissue seldom seen in adults
• Location
• Umbilical chord
• Pulp of developing teeth
• Structure
• Abundant ground substance
• Rich in hyaluronan
• Very few fibers
• Cells are stellate fibroblast and a few
  macrophages

68
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

• Protects mechanical stress in multiple directions
• Locations
• DERMIS OF SKIN
• CAPSULES OF ORGANS
• SHEATHS OF MUSCLES AND NERVES
• SCLERA OF EYES
• DURA MATER OF BRAIN
• Structure
• HIGH PROPORTION OF COLLAGEN (SEE COLLAGEN SLIDE)
• BUNDLE INTERWOVEN IN 3 DIRECTINS
• A FEW MACROPHAGE, AND NEARLY NO FREE CELLS

69
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
70
Dense Regular Connective Tissue

• Resist stress in one direction only
• Locations
• TENDONS
• APONEUROSES
• LIGAMENTS
• CORNEA OF EYE
• Structure
• PARELLEL BUNDLES OF TYPE I COLLAGEN ORIENTED IN
  HE DIRECTION OF STRESS
• VERY FLAT FIBROBLASTS ARE ALIGNED BETWEEN
  COLLAGEN BUNDLES

71
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
72
Collagen Disease

• Ehlers-Danlos syndrome-inherited effect of
  collagen with several enzyme deficiencies
• Osteogenisis Imperfecta- brittle bone syndrome-by
  bones that can easily bend and fracture-retarded
  wound healing and a twisted spine

73
Elastic Tissue

• Allows some stretch
• Location
• Ligamentum nuchae
• Ligamentum flavum
• Structure
• Parallel bundles of elastic fibers, some bundles
  of TYPE I collagen
• Very flat fibroblasts

74
Dense Regular Elastic Tissue
75
Elastin

• Elastin is a connective tissue with rubber like
  properties
• Elastin can relax and stretch in conformation
• It has a desmosine cross-link that interconnect
  the network

76
Elastin Diseases

• A1-antitrypsin deficiency with breaks down
  elastin and allow neutrophils to destroy lung
  tissues

77
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
78
Collagen

• The most abundant protein in the body
• Collagen may be of a structural role, or
  dispersed as in the vitreous humor of the eye.
• It is a triple stranded helix
• Collagen goes through various biosynthesis steps
  Hydoxylation, Glycosylation and secretion
• Collagen is degraded by a number of colagenases
• Four types
• Type 1 - skin, bone, tendon, blood vessel,
  cornea
• Type 2- cartilage, intervertebral
  disk,vitreous
• Type 3- blood vessels, fetal skin
• Type 4- basement membranes

79
Collagen

• Matrix ratio is what is important for stress
• Type IX binds to Type II in cartilage , and
  vitreous humor of eye
• Types XII and XIV bind to Type I in tendons
• Type IV makes up a large portion of lamina densa
• Type VII anchors fibrils between basal lamina
• Type VIII makes up a large portion of cornea of
  eye

80
Proteoglycans

1. Chondroitin 4 and 6 Sulfates
2. Keratan Sulfate
3. Dermatan Sulfate
4. Heparin
5. Heparan Sulfate
6. Hyaluronic Acid

81
Chondroitin 4-and 6-Sulfates

• Disaccharide Unit
• N-acetylgalactosamine and Glucuronic acid,
  sulfate on either C-4 or C-6
• Most abundant GAG in the Body
• Found in cartilage, tendon, ligaments and aorta
• In Cartilage, bind Collagen and hold fibers in a
  tight, strong network
• HALF-LIFE 10 days

82
Keratan Sulfate

• Disaccharide Unit
• N-acetylglucosamine and galactose
• Most heterogenous GAG
• Found in cartilage proteoglycan aggregate with
  chondroitin sulfate
• Also in Cornea
• HALF-LIFE 120 days

83
Dermatan Sulfate

• Disaccharide Unit
• N-acetylgalactosamine and L-iduronic acid
• Found in skin blood vessels and heart
• HALF-LIFE 10 days

84
Heparin

• Disaccharide Unit
• Glucosamine and glucuronic acid
• Unlike of GAG that are extra cellular compounds
  Heparin is intracellular component of mast cells
  that line arteries,liver, lungs, and skin
• Serves as anticoagulant
• HALF-LIFE 48hours

85
Hyaluronic Acid

• Disacchride Unit
• N-acetylglucosamine and glucuronic acid
• Unsulfated not covalently attached, not just
  mammalian,but found in bacteria as well
• Serve as lubricant and shock absorber
• Found in synovial fluid of joints, vitreous
  humor, umbilical chord, and loose connective
  tissue
• HALF-LIFE 3 days

86
Heperan Sulfate

• Disaccharide Unit
• Same as heparin, except less acetylated and fewer
  sulfate groups
• Extracellular GAG, found in basement membranes
  and ubiquitous components of cell surface

87
Adipose Tissue
88
Adipose tissue

• Uniocular (WHITE FAT)
• Fat that diminishes with fasting
• Location
• In children there is a subcutaneous layer
• Adults
• Mesentary
• Omentum
• Retroperitoneal
• Subcutaneous over most of body

89
Adipose tissue

• Macroscopic/microscopic structure
• White to yellow depending on diet
• Divided by connective tissue septa into lobules
• Highly vascular
• Lipid is a liquid at body temperature
• Cells may be surrounded by reticular fibers
• Thick glycocalyx surrounds polyhedral cell
• A few filamentous mitochondria
• Small golgi apparatus
• Some sER
• Free ribosomes
• Vimentin filaments surround lipid droplet

90
White Fat
91
Brown Fat

• Multiocular
• Fat that does not diminish with fasting
• Location
• Infants
• Neck,
• Between scapula
• Adults
• In adults it appears the same

92
Brown Fat

• Macroscopic/microscopic structure
• Tan to reddish brown depending on diet
• Cytochromes in mitochondria
• Highly vascular
• Small than white fat cell,varying size
• Cells may be surrounded by reticular fibers
• Spherical nucleus
• A numerous mitochondria
• Small golgi apparatus
• Some sER
• Free ribosomes
• SPECIALIZED FOR HEAT PRODUCTION-REGULATION THAT
  IS REGULATED BY THE HYPOTHALAMUS

93
Fat Formation

• Primary Fat Formation (Brown Fat)
• Occurs early in embryogenesis
• Epitheloid precursor cells are laid down in
  specific areas
• Precursors differerentiate into multi-occular
  adipocytes and accumulate lipid droplets
• Secondary Fat Formation (White Fat)
• Occurs later in embryogenesis
• Fusiform cells in many connective tissues
  differentiate into uniocular adipocytes and
  accumulate lipid

94
Brown Fat
95
CARTILAGE
96
Cartilage
97
Cartilage

• Cells (chondrocytes) are sparsely distributed in
  a firm gel-like matrix
• Only a few blood vessels penetrate cartilage
• Can grow rapidly
• Function-
• Flexible skeletal element
• External ears, nose, auditory canal, trachea,
  larnx, joining ribs and sternum, isolated masses
  in the skull
• Load bearing elements
• Articulate surface of joints, cartilage in joint
  cavities
• DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

98
Cartilage

• TYPE II COLLAGEN
• NOT USUALLY VISIBLE
• TYPE IX COLLAGEN
• PROBOBLY BINDS AND STABILIZES TYPE II
• TYPE VI COLLAGEN
• OCCURS NEAR CELLS , MAY LINK CELLS TO MATRIX
• TYPE I COLLAGEN
• IS PRESENT IN WHITE FIBROCARTILAGE
• GAGS are CHONDROITIN SULFATE and DERMATAN
• Elastic fibers are present in elastic cartilage

99
CHONDROCYTES

• OCCUPY LACUNAE
• Young Cells
• Flattened
• May have filopodia
• Metabolically active
• Many organelles
• Mature Cells
• Larger and rounder
• Fewer filopodia
• Become metabolically inactive
• Loose organelles

100
Growth of Cartilage

• Apposisition growth occurs at surface of the
  cartilage
• They begin to secrete matrix material
• When surrounded by matrix , they are called
  chondrocytes
• Interstitial growth
• New cell secrete matrix around themselves, so
  they occupy separate lacunae
• Cells occur in clusters (2-4 cells)
• Progeny of one chondroblast
• Called ISOGENIC GROUPS

101
Hyaline Cartilage

• Location
• Tracheal ring
• Extrenal nose
• Larnyx
• Costal cartilage
• Gross appearance
• Opalescent to translucent
• Bluish gray
• Firm with some elasticity

102
Elastic Cartilage

• Location
• External ear
• Some larnygeal cartilages
• Internal and external auditory canal
• Gross appearance
• Yellowish
• More opaque than hyaline cartilage
• More flexible than hyaline cartilage

103
Fibro-cartilage

• Location
• Connecting ligaments to tendons and bone
• Intervertebral disc
• Fossa, and sutures of skull
• Symphysis Pubis
• Gross appearance
• White
• Fibrous
• Similar to tendon or ligament

104
Cartilage Regeneration

• Very poor
• Lacks blood supply
• Aging
• Many cartilages become calcified
• Antigenicity
• Low antigenicity, may be used for reconstructive
  surgery

105
BONE
106
Bone

• Compact Bone
• Forms a dense structure
• Always cover the surface of bones
• Forms shaft-diaphysis of long bones
• Cancellous Bone (spongy, trabecular)
• Often forms inner bones
• Trabeculae alligned with stress
• Developmental origin
• Intramembranous bone forms directly from
  mesenchyme
• Endochondrial (intracartilagenous) bone replaces
  cartilage model

107
Organization of collagen fibers

• Primary Bone
• Newly Formed
• Collagen arranged in a irregular network
• Secondary Bone
• Mature bone
• Collagen arranged in lamellae (parallel bundles)

108
Bone Matrix

• Fibers-Mostly Collagen Type I
• Osteonectin-an adhesive protein
• Minerals
• Hydoxyapatite crystals
• Needle shaped
• Contain calcium, and phosphorus
• Ground substance
• Proteoglycans
• Glycoproteins that bind calcium
• Sialoprotein
• Osteocalcin
• NOTE- RADIUM, STRONTIUM, and LEAD can replace
  CALCIUM

109
Bone Cells

• Osteoblasts
• Localized at surface of bone
• Synthesize organic components of matrix
• Osteocytes
• Cells in lacunae
• Involved in matrix salts
• Osteoclasts
• Multinucleated
• Ruffled border
• Reabsorb bone matrix during remodeling
• Phagocytosis of debris
• Secretes acids, collagenase, and proteolytic
  enzymes

110
Intramembranous ossification

• Flat Bones
• Mechanism
• Clusters of mesanchymal cell differentiate into
  osteoblasts
• Osteoblast secrete matrix
• Spicules of bone form spongy bone
• Centers of ossicification grow together
• Bone is deposited in inner and outer surfaces
  forming layers of compact bone

111
Endochondrial ossification

• Bone replaces a cartilage model
• Long and short bones
• Mechanism
• Hyaline cartlage model of bone is formed in fetus
• Chondrocytes of model hypertrophy and then
  regnerate-this hypertrophy causes matrix to
  reduce plates
• Matrix is cacified by hydroxapatite
• Osteoclast digest channels, so progenitor
  Osteoblasts can continue to synthesize matrix

112
Ossification

• Resting zone
• an area of normal hyaline cartilage yet to be
  ossified
• Proliferative zone
• Chondrocytes divide forming isogenic groups
• Longitudal growth of entire bone
• Hypertrophic zone
• Chondrocyte enlarge and then die
• Matrix reduced to thin plates
• Calcified cartilage zone
• Hydroxapatite crystals are deposited in matrix
• Ossification zone
• Capillary invade, primary bone is deposited,
  spicules formed

113
Histophysiology of Bone

• Bone is the reservoir for Calcium
• Necessary for the activity of many enzymes
• Is a second messenger for cell signaling
• Is required for blood clotting
• Is required for cell adhesion
• Is required for muscle contraction
• Low calcium activate Parathyroid Hormone
• High calcium secretes Calcitonin

114
Normal Cancellous Bone
115
Bone (normal fetal growth plate)
116
Bone Marrow

• ERYTHROPEITIC STEM CELL FROM LIVER ARE BROUGHT IN
  TO FORM BONE MARROW
• STEM CELL DISCUSSION COVERED IN FULL IN
  HEMATOLOGY

117
Bone Marrow (high Magnification)
118
Brown Tissue of Bone
119
Giant Cell Tumor of Bone
120
Osteochondroma of Bone
121
Chronic Osteomyelitis-Difficult to Treat
122
Bone with Urate Crystals
123
Pagets of Bone showing Osteoclastic activity
124
Healthy Bone
125
Ewings Sarcoma
126
Pagets of Bone with Osteoclastic Activity
127
Ivasive Chondrosarcoma of Bone
128
Calcium Pyrophosphate Spike of Bone
129
Synovial Urate Crystals in Gout
130
MUSCLE
131
Endomysium (in)

• Surrounds individual fibers
• Loose connective tissue
• Collagens I, II, IV, V
• Capillaries
• Small nerves

132
Perimysium

• Surround parallel groups of fibers (fascicles)
• Continuous with endomysium
• Irregular connective tissue
• Has large blood vessels and nerves
• Has neuromuscular spindles

133
Epimysium

• Forms part of deep facia
• Is continous with perimysium and tendons

134
SARCOMERE
135
TEM APPEARANCE

• I Bands
• F-Actin
• Tropomyosinthin helix
• Troponinsbind with calcium for actin/myosin
  bridge
• Z disk
• A-actinin
• Nebulin and desmin , vinculin, all which anchor Z
  disk
• Dark A Bands
• Myosin-major thick protien
• M-line and H-Zone are within A-band

136
Sarcomere (Band, Lines, Zones)
137
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

• Modified sER, which stores Ca
• T-Tubules
• Depolarization travels down T-Tubules to
  Sarcoplasmic Reticulum releasin Ca into the
  sarcoplasm

138
Muscle Contraction
139
Actin/Tropomyosin
140
SMOOTH MUSCLE
141
Myofilaments, Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
142
Cardiac Tissue
143
VASCULAR SYSTEM

• Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the
  tissue
• Capillaries allow for exchange of nutrients and
  gases
• Veins carry blood back to the heart

144
LAYERS OF BLOOD VESSELS

• Tunica Adventia
• Is outermost level- biding to other tissue
• This layer, relatively dense
• Longitudal dense connective tissue
• Tunica Media
• Is a middle layeelastinr mainly consisting of
  fenestrated smooth muscle
• Secretes
• Tunica Intima
• Endothelial layer
• Polygonal cells
• Thin layer loose connective tissue

145
Elastic Arteries

• Conducting Arteries that are large and near the
  heart
• Wall have considerable elastic tissue which allow
  for stretching with each bolus of blood
• Recoil of elastic wall dampens the pulse and
  allows for constant flow of blood

146
Examples of Elastic Arteries

• AORTA
• PULMONARY
• BRACHIOCEPHALIC
• COMMON CAROTID
• SUBCLAVIAN
• COMMON ILIAC

147
Elastic Artery
148
Artery, Vein, Lymph
149
Resistance Vessels

• ARTERIOLES- are small vessels in the tissues
• They have a small diameter and a large amount of
  resistance
• THEY ARE THE MAIN SOURCE OF PERIPHERAL RESISTANCE

150
Capillary, Arteriole
151
CAPACITANCE VESSELS

• LARGE VEINS AND VENULES
• DURING TIMES OF INCREASED BLOOD DEMAND, BLOOD IS
  RECRUITED FROM VENULES AND VEINS

152
Small Artery Longitudal Section
153
AFFERENT INTERVENTION

• Carotid bodies and Aortic Bodies
• Carotid Bodies are located in connective tissue
  wall of the carotid artery, where they bifurcate
  into internal external carotids
• Aortic bodies are in the wall of the arch of
  aorta
• Carotid Sinus is the baro-receptor
• Swelling is internal carotid-which has numerous
  nerve endings

154
EFFERENT INTERVENTION

• Intervention that is through the sympathetic
  nervous system
• Brain generation of impulses that travel through
  the vasomotor sympathetic nerves to the blood
  vessels
• Substances
• Norepinephrine-sympathetic neurons and locus
  cereleus
• Angiotensin II-responds to fall in B/P at the
  juxtaglomerular apparatus in kidneys
• Vasopressin-response to severe blood loss _at_ the
  neurohypophysis (posterior lobe of Pituitary)

155
OTHER INTERVENTION

• Endothelin-I
• Is a potent muscle constrictor
• Nitric Oxide
• Is a potent vasodilator

156
Vaso Vasorum, Elastic Interna, Epithelium
157
Vein, Artery
158
Vascular Diseases
159
Arteries Veins

• Arteries and veins have been distinctively
  structures.
• Artery walls are generally thicker than venous
  counterparts.
• Vein have an overall larger diameter, a larger
  lumen and a more narrow wall.

160
(No Transcript)
161
(No Transcript)
162
Arterial and Venous Lumen

• Under normal situations the Intima layer of
  arteries is less exaggerated than veins
• Whereas under most situations in elastic arteries
  the Media layer is much more prominent than
  corresponding veins
• Arterioles, the smallest branches of the
  arteries, is normally responsible for blood
  pressure regulation

163
Intima Cells
164
Endothelial Cell Activation
165
Endothelial Cell Properties

• Maintenance of permeability barrier
• Extra cellular Matrix (collagen, procollagen)
• Elaboration of anticoagulant /anti-thrombotic
  molecules
• Prostacyclin
• Plasminogen Activator
• Heparin like molecules
• Elaboration of pro-thrombotic molecules
• Von Willebrand factors (Factor VIIIa)
• Tissue Factor
• Plasminogen Activator Inhibitors

166
Endothelial Cell Properties

• Modulation of Blood Blow Factors
• Vasoconstrictors ACE, endothelin
• Vasodilators NO/EDRF, prostacyclin
• Regulation of Inflammation Factors
• IL-1, IL-6, IL-8
• Adhesion Molecules
• Histocompatibility Antigens
• Regulation of Cell Growth
• Growth Stimulators PDGF, CSF, FGF
• Growth Inhibitors Heperin, TGF-B
• Oxidation of LDL

167
Endothelial Dysfunction

• In all realization, the term endothelial
  dysfunction refers to potentially reversible
  changes in the state of the endothelial cell that
  occurs in response to environmental stimuli

168
Endothelial Cell Adhesion
169
Intimal Thickening

• Healing and damage of blood vessels comprise SMC
  proliferation in the migration from the media to
  the intima, and subsequent multiplication and
  modification of intimal cells.
• An extensive or chronic injury induces a very
  complex and repair sequence. Which include
  proliferation activities of promoters and
  inhibitors.

170
Intimal Thickening
171
Vein, Nerve, Artery (VAN)
172
Histo-embryo
173
Mature Follicle
174
Early Graphian Follicle
175
Theca Interna, Granulosa Cells, Adipose
176
Ovarian Follicle
177
Zona Pellucida
178
STOMACH AND GI
179
Normal Colonic CryptsLargest Lymph in Body
180
Duodenum
181
Esophageal Mucosa
182
Esophagus with Neoplasia
183
Normal Intestinal Mucosa
184
Fundus of Stomach
185
Fundus of Stomach, Parietal Cells
186
Appendicitis with Inflammation
187
Advanced Necrosis of Ischemic Enteritis
188
Gastric Immuno Slide
189
Gastric Ulcer perforating Muscularis
190
Cardiac Stomach
191
Acute AppendicitisExtensive migratory Neutrophils
192
Barretts with Dysplasia-Risk of Adenocarcinoma
193
Appendix Mucosa
194
Acute EsophagitisInflamed Squames
195
Acute Gastritis, Increased Neutrophil near
mucosal cells
196
Bleeding Ulcer, Inflamed Necri
197
Peyers Patch of Ileum
198
Normal Gastric Fundal Mucosa
199
Colon
200
Pseudomembranous Necrotic Epithelium (Colitis)
201
BARRETS Gastroesophageal Junction
202
Colon Mucosa with Goblet Cells
203
Fistula in Inflammatory Chrohns
204
Adenocarcinoma at Ampulla of Vater----Lots of
Atypical cells
205
Fistulas are common with inflammatory Chrohns
206
Psedomembranous Infiltration
207
RESPIRATORY
208
TRACHEA
209
CHF with Transudative Infiltrate
210
Alveolar Neutrophil Invasion
211
Central Acinar Emphysema
212
Conducting Airway
213
Respiratory Acinar Cells
214
Respiratory Bronchiole
215
Respiratory Epithelium
216
Respiratory Mucosa/Submucosa
217
Terminal Acinus
218
Pulmonary EdemaNote Thickness of Acinar wall
219
Hodgkins Infiltrates
220
Congested Alveoli (12-24hrs)Note Neutrophilic
Invasion
221
Alveolar with Agranular Invasion
222
Neuron
223
CNS/PNS Supportive cells

• Astrocyte-physical support, repair, K metabolism
• Microglia-Phagocytosis
• Oligodendrocytes - -central myelin production
• Schwann cells- peripheral myelin production
• Ependymal cell- Inner lining of ventricles

224
Neurofibrils
225
Alzheimers Disease
226
Neural TransmissionDENTRITES-?Axons
227
HE Shows Glial Cells
228
Free Nerve Ending
229
ALS-Denervation of Muscle
230
Neurological Cells
231
Excitatory Synaptic Cleft
232
Astrocytic Filaments
233
Astrocyte
234
Synaptic Ultrastructure
235
Astrocytes
236
Neurofilaments and Microtubules
237
Blood Brain Barrier of Astrocyte
238
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER

• Choroid plexus
• Intercerebral capillaries
• Arachnoid
• CIA

239
Purkinje Cell Fibers
240
Glial Scar Formation
241
EM Oligodenrocyte
242
Retinal Ganglion Cells
243
BREAST TISSUE
244
Section of Mammary
245
Mammary Section
246
ATYPICAL CELL of BREAST
247
Normal Breast Tissue
248
Dysplasia of Breast 65-75
249
Serous Secretory Unit, Mucous Secretory Unit
250
Fibrocystic Changes in Breast Tissue
251
Breast with Atypical Hyperplasia
252
Fibroadenoma of Breast
253
Breast with DesmoplasiaUsually Palpable
254
Metastasis of Breast
255
Breast with Benign Apocrine Changes
256
Neoplastic Hyperplasia of Breast
257
Glandular Dysplasia
258
Vaginal Epithelium
259
Early Secretory Endometrium
260
Hyperchromatic Endometrial Carcinoma
261
Endometrial Hyperplasia-Bleeding
262
Herpes
263
LIVER and Biliary
264
Hepatocytes
265
Liver Cell
266
Biliary Liver Pigment
267
Liver Cells
268
Central Vein
269
Nutmeg Liver
270
Fat Necrosis
271
Fatty Liver-Disrupted Lipoprotein transport
272
Hepatitis B with Fulminating Necrosis
273
Hep C-Pt has some Steatorhea
274
PORTAL TRIAD
275
Passive Centrilobar Congestion
276
Hepatocytes, Kuepher Cell with Hemosiderin
277
Kueffer Cells--liver
278
Hepatocyte-Kueffer cells Hemosiderosis
279
Gall Bladder
280
Inflamed Bile Duct- Cholangitis
281
Fibrotic Hyperplasia of Ducts
282
Viral Hepatitis-Collapse of Liver Parenchyema
283
Mesentary
284
Mesenchymal Tissue
285
ADRENAL Magnified
286
Neoplastic Gland (hyperchromic and pleomorphic)
287
LYMPH
288
Lymph Node
289
Lymph
290
(No Transcript)
291
(No Transcript)
292
Spleen
293
Spleen

• White Pulp
• Red Pulp
• Trabecular Center
• Marginal Zone
• PALS

294
SPLEEN Trabecular center, splenic artery
295
Spleen- PALS
296
(No Transcript)
297
Amistogotic Leischmaniasis of Spleen
298
Spleen
299
THYMUS
300
Hassalls Corpuscle
301
Palentine Tonsils
302
Filiform Papillae of Tongue
303
GALT

• Tonsils and Peyer's patches, along with all the
  diffuse lymphatic tissue in the gastrointestinal
  tract and respiratory system, collectively are
  labeled gut associated lymphatic tissue, or GALT.
  The respiratory system arises in embryonic life
  as a diverticulum of the gut, and its lining
  cells, like those of the digestive tract, are
  derived from endoderm. The GALT is considered to
  be a lymphoid organ in its own right, which
  processes immunological challenges encountered in
  those systems.

304
Kidney
305
KIDNEY
306
Glomerulus
307
Proximal and Distal Tubules

• Proximal and distal convoluted tubules (EM).
  Distal has no brush border. Peritubular
  capillaries lie in the connective tissue between
  tubules.

308
(No Transcript)
309
Thyroid
310
Thyroid Lymph
311
Glands
312
Secretory Gland Types
313
Seminoma
314
Cross section of Ureter
315
Atrophied Seminepherous Tubules Male
316
Brown Pigmented Macrophages in Melenoma
317
EM-Endocytosis
318
LAB TECHNIQIQUES
319
Fixation

• If pemanent section is desired it must be fixed
• If can be does by chemical or physical methotheds
• Usually formaldehyde or gluteraldehyde

320
Embedding

• Embedding materials include parrifin and plastic
  resin
• Parrifins is used for light microoscopy
• Resins are used for light and electron microscopy

321
Staining

• Tissues are colorless so we stain them
• Basis (basophilic dyes) are blue
• Nucleic acid
• Glycoprotiens
• glycoaminoglycans
• Acid (eosinic dyes) are red
• Mitichondria
• Collegen
• Secretory granules

322
Staining Continued

• H E Stain- a common stain with both
  characteristics
• RNA portions of cytoplasmic components
• Mallory Stain
• Example diffientiating collagen from muscle
  tissue

323
REVIEW MICROSCOPE

• Please review Microscope capabilities

324
Chemistry

• Remember that cells have
• Proteins
• Phospatases, Peroxidases, and Dehyrogenases
• Polysacchrides
• Glycoprotiens, Glycoaminoglycans
• Lipds

325
Fractionation

• By size
• Using a isolation via by differential centrifuge
• Example
• Nuclei
• Mitochondria
• ribosomes
• microsomes

326
Hybridizations

• Gel Electrophoresis most common for proteins,
  DNA, RNA
• Look up Western, Northern, Southern Blot

327
(No Transcript)
328
(No Transcript)