Ali

1
Ali Muawiya

• Islamic History the First 150 Years

2
Session Plan

1. The Accession of Ali
2. The Battle of the Camel
3. Ali Muawiya
4. The Battle of Siffin
5. The Emergence of the Khawarij the Death of Ali

3
Section I The Accession of Ali
4
Alis Background

• Full name Ali ibn Abi Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib
• Member of the Bani Hashim (Muhammads own clan)
• A cousin of Muhammad and his son-in-law
• Married to Muhammads daughter Fatima
• Father of Muhammads only surviving progeny,
  al-Hasan and al-Husayn
• After Fatimas death, Ali married Khawla bint
  Jafar of the Bani Hanifa tribe
• They had a son later known as Muhammad ibn
  al-Hanafiyya (or the son of the Hanafi woman)
• After the death of Muhammad and his uncle
  al-Abbas, Ali became the head of the Bani Hashim
  clan
• He was thus the head of the Ahl al-Bayt (or
  People of the House)
• Muhammads family were seen as important (and
  still are) in that they were believed to carry a
  special kind of charisma

5
Perceptions of Ali

• Ali was one of the most famous members of the
  early Muslim community
• Indeed, he was something of a heroic figure
• A very early convert to Islam
• Some sources say he was the first male to convert
  (at approximately 10 years of age), others that
  he converted after Abu Bakr
• Such statements are probably also part of the
  wider Sunni-Shii debate on the relative rankings
  of these two men
• Ali was an active warrior, taking part in all of
  the early battles, where he distinguished himself
  for his bravery
• Widely held to be a very wise and knowledgeable
  man
• Muhammad is reported to have said
• I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its door
• As with Umar, Ali had a strong reputation for
  justice
• Shia tradition depicts Ali as the first Imam
  after Muhammad, with a strong emphasis on his
  esoteric knowledge
• Many later Islamic movements (Sunni or Shia) see
  Ali as a particular role model
• Many sufi orders (tariqat) see him as one of
  their founding fathers

6
The Accession of Ali

• As we saw in the last session, Ali became caliph
  amidst the turmoil following the assassination of
  Uthman
• Alis accession was thus somewhat anomalous
• However, he seems to have been the only realistic
  candidate at the time and thus received the open
  support of virtually all of the Medinan elite
• However, Tabari cites a number of reports which
  throw some doubt on the pledges of Talha and
  al-Zubayr
• Some state they gave their allegiances willingly,
  others say they did so under duress (Tabari
  I.3066-3069)
• All of the provincial governors, except Muaiwya,
  seem to have accepted Alis accession and thus
  pledged their allegiance
• Many members of the Umayyad clan fled to Muawiya
  in Syria
• News of Uthmans murder and Alis accession
  probably reached the provinces simultaneously

7
Section II The Battle of the Camel
8
The Battle of the Camel

• Arguing that their oath of allegiance was made
  under duress, Talha and al-Zubayr ask leave of
  Ali to make the pilgrimage to Mecca
• This is accepted and once there they begin to
  rally support against Ali
• They join up with Aisha (Muhammads widow), and
  then begin to amass an army
• Their campaign is based upon a call for vengeance
  for Uthman
• However, as we saw previously, some of our
  sources record that Aisha and others had helped
  foment the revolt against Uthman
• They then moved from Mecca to Basra (where Talha
  had large support) and from there formed an army
• Ali, meanwhile, had moved to Kufa
• The two sides met in battle shortly after, the
  first time Muslim had fought Muslim

9
The Battle of the Camel

• In many ways, it was also the first act in a much
  larger civil war
• It was called the Battle of the Camel because
  the fighting centred around Aishas armoured
  camel
• The result was a resounding victory for Ali
• Talha and al-Zubayr were killed and Aisha was
  sent back to Medina
• During this time, Muawiya refuses to pledge
  allegiance to Ali

10
A Brief Pause

• Turn to the person next to you and spend a couple
  of minutes summarising the lecture thus far.
• Questions?

11
Section III Ali Muawiya
12
Muawiyas Background

• Full name Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan ibn Harb ibn
  Umayya
• Muawiya was thus a prominent member of the
  wealthy Umayyad clan
• His father, Abu Sufyan, had led the opposition to
  Muhammad
• Muawiya was a late convert to Islam himself
• Some reports record that he acted as Muhammads
  secretary
• Appointed governor of Syria by Umar
• After Alis election, the Umayyad clan flee to
  him
• He is thus joined by Marwan ibn al-Hakam and Amr
  ibn al-As (the conqueror of Egypt)
• The sources generally depict these two as being
  prime movers against Ali

13
Correspondence

• Ali and Muawiya debate the issue by letter
• Muawiya refuses to recognise Ali as caliph
• Based mainly on his claim that Ali was involved
  in Uthmans murder
• He argued that he was thus Uthmans nearest and
  most able kinsman who sought the retaliation
  sanctioned by the Quran
• This theme runs through virtually all of
  Muawiyas correspondence with Ali
• The impact of poetry
• Lets look at some examples

14
Correspondence

• By my life, if the people were pledging
  allegiance to you and you were innocent of the
  blood of Uthman you would be like Abu Bakr, Umar
  and Uthman, may God be pleased with them all.
  But you incited the Muhajirun against Uthman and
  induced the Ansar to desert him, so the ignorant
  obeyed you and the feeble became strong through
  you. The people of Syria ahl al-Sham accept
  nothing but to fight you until you surrender to
  them the killers of Uthman. If you do, there
  will be a shura among the Muslims. The people of
  Hijaz used to the judges over the people holding
  the right in their hands, but since they
  abandoned it, the right is now in the hands of
  the people of Syria.
• By my life, your argument against me is not like
  your argument against Talha and al-Zubayr since
  they pledged allegiance to you and I have not
  pledged allegiance to you. Nor is your argument
  against the Syrians like you argument against the
  Basrans, since the Basrans at first obeyed you,
  and the Syrians did not. As for your nobility in
  Islam and your close kinship with the Messenger
  of God and your place among Quraysh, I do not
  deny them
• (Pseudo-Ibn Qutayba, Imama I.166-7, quoted in
  Madelung, 1999, 205)

15
Correspondence

• Ali counters each of these points in his
  response, arguing that he did not kill Uthman,
  though he was unhappy with his conduct
• He also argued that there was no one in Syria
  with enough seniority (in Islamic terms) to be
  caliph and that this was widely known
• He ordered his own poet to respond to Kab ibn
  Juayl

16
Correspondence

• As for your statement hand over the killers of
  Uthman, what are you in relation to Uthman? You
  are merely a man of Banu Umayya, and the sons of
  Uthman are more entitled to that than you. But if
  you claim that you are more powerful than they to
  seek retaliation for the blood of Uthman, enter
  under my obedience and then bring the people
  before me for judgement, and I shall put you and
  them on the road to justice. As for your
  distinction between Syria and Basra and between
  you and Talha and al-Zubayr, by my life, the
  matter there is in every way the same because it
  was a general pledge of allegiance in which
  neither a second view may be taken nor an option
  renewed
• (al-Minqari, Waqat Siffin 57-9, quoted in
  Madelung, 206)
• Al-Najashi (Alis poet)
• You have made Ali and his followers the equal
  of Ibn Hind, are you not ashamed?

17
Correspondence

• Muawiya first 3 caliphs were righteous but Ali
  opposed them all
• Yet each one you envied, and against each one
  you revolted. We knew from your looking askance,
  your offensive speech, your heavy sighing, and
  your holding back from the caliphs. To each one
  of them you had to be led as the male camel is
  led by the wood stick through its nose in order
  to give your pledge of allegiance while you were
  loath. Then you were consumed by envy towards
  your cousin Uthman, who was most entitled among
  them to your refraining from that because of his
  kinship and marriage ties with you. Yet against
  him in secret and openlyarms were borne against
  him in the sanctuary of the Messenger of God, and
  he was killed while you were with him in the same
  place, hearing the frightful screams

18
Correspondence

• Yet you do not even try to deflect suspicion
  and accusation in his respect from yourself by
  word or actAnother matter is your giving shelter
  to his murderers. They are your backbone, your
  helpers, your hand, and your entourage. It has
  been mentioned to me that you disavow blood guilt
  for him. If you are truthful, give us power over
  his murderers that we may kill them for him, and
  we shall be the quickest people to join you. If
  not, there is nothing for you and your companions
  but the sword. By the One beside whom there is no
  God, we shall seek the murderers of Uthman on the
  mountains and in the deserts, on land and on sea,
  until God kills them, or our spirits join God
• (al-Minqari, Waqat Siffin 86-7, quoted in
  Madelung, 211-212)

19
Correspondence

• Alis next response is important (and somewhat
  lengthy) and is recorded, with some variations,
  by al-Minqari al-Baladhuri
• You have mentioned that God chose for him
  helpers among the Muslims through whom He backed
  him and they were in their ranking with Him
  according to their merits in Islam. The most
  excellent, you assertedwere the khalifa and then
  the khalifa of the khalifa. By my life, their
  station in Islam is indeed great and the loss of
  them a grievous wound in it, may God have mercy
  on them and reward them with the best reward. You
  mentioned further that Uthman was third in
  excellence. If Uthman was indeed doing good, God
  will recompense him for it, and if he was doing
  evil, he will meet a Lord most merciful for whom
  no sin is too great to be forgiven

20
Correspondence

• Ali then refers to the Qurayshi persecution of
  Muhammad and the earliest Muslims
• He then refers to the ahl al-bayt and their
  services to Islam
• Whenever matters got tough and the battle cry
  was sounded, he used to put the people of his
  house up in the front rank and protected his
  Companions from the heat of the lances and the
  sword. Thus Ubayda ibn al-Harith ibn
  al-Muttalin was killed on the day of Badr, Hamza
  on the day of Uhud, Jafar and Zayd ibn Haritha
  on the day of Muta. The one whose name I would
  mention, if I so wished, more than once sought
  for the sake of God the same martyrdom they
  sought, yet their terms were expedited, while his
  death was delayedFor I have not seen anyone
  among the people, who was more sincere to God in
  his obedience to His Messenger, or more
  submissive to His Messenger in obedience to his
  Lordthan these few whom I named to you, even
  though there was much good among the Emigrants
  which we recognise, may God reward them for their
  best of works

21
Correspondence

• Ali then refers to his relationship with Abu Bakr
  and Umar
• You mentioned my envy of the caliphs, my
  holding back from them, and my rebellion against
  them. As regards rebellion, God forbid that there
  was. As for my holding back from them, and my
  being loath of their affair, I do not apologise
  for that to the people, because when God took
  away His Prophet, Quraysh said, From us an
  amir, and the Ansar said, From us an amir.
  Then Quraysh said From us is Muhammad, so we
  are entitled to this matter. The Ansar
  recognised that and surrendered to them the reign
  and the authority. Yet if they deserved it
  through Muhammad to the exclusion of the Ansar,
  then the people closest to Muhammad are more
  entitled to it than they. If not, the Ansar
  surely have the greatest portion among the
  Arabs

22
Correspondence

• Finally, Ali reminded Muawiya of his fathers
  support for him
• Your father came to when the people put up Abu
  Bakr as their ruler and said You are more
  entitled to this matter after Muhammad I back
  you in this against whoever opposes you. Stretch
  out your hand that I pledge allegiance to you.
  But I did not do it. You know that your father
  said this and desired it, and I feared division
  among the people of Islam. Thus your father was
  more ready to recognise my right than you. If you
  recognise my right, you will come to your good
  senses. But if you will not, God will let us
  dispense with you
• (al-Minqari Waqat Siffin 88-91 al-Baladhuri
  Ansab al-Ashraf II, 279-283)

23
Towards Siffin

• As we can see from these passages, the attempts
  at negotiation failed
• As such, after some minor skirmishing, Ali
  gathered his forces and moved towards Syria
• Muawiya, likewise, began mobilising his own
  forces
• The two armies met each other at Siffin, in what
  is now northern Iraq

24
Section IV The Battle of Siffin
25
The Battle of Siffin

• The subsequent battle at Siffin was one of the
  most important events in Islamic history
• In some ways, it marked the decisive fracture of
  the old order
• It also saw the first real emergence of two key
  groups, the Shia and the Khawarij
• Although the Battle of the Camel had been the
  first Muslim vs. Muslim conflict, Siffin was a
  far more serious affair
• Although the sources almost universally refer to
  it as the Battle of Siffin it was in fact a
  series of small skirmishes, and a major battle
• Due to the diffuse nature of Arab tribes,
  sections from most of the large confederacies
  fought on both sides
• Thus, again, Siffin proved to be very divisive
• Muawiyas forces reached Siffin first and
  attempted to block access to water
• This caused some dissent within his own ranks and
  prompted a concerted attack from Ali

26
The Battle of Siffin

• This attack was led by Malik al-Ashtar and
  al-Ashath ibn Qays, two of Alis most committed
  supporters
• This was followed by more sporadic fighting, and
  attempts at further negotiation
• All out battle began on 8th Safar 38 AH (26th
  July 657)
• Ubaydullah ibn Umar (who had joined Muawiya) led
  the initial charge and after heavy fighting was
  himself slain
• The sources report that the main battle itself
  was fought over three days and the outcome seems
  to have long been in doubt
• Towards the end of the battle, Alis forces
  mounted a forceful attack and almost succeeded in
  reaching Muawiya himself
• The traditional account states that at this point
  the Syrian troops began raising copies of the
  Quran on their lances
• This was interpreted as a sign for arbitration
• The sources state that this was Amr ibn al-As
  idea, aimed at avoiding immanent defeat
• Whatever the reason, the gesture was accepted and
  the two sides called an armistice

27
Section V The Death of Ali
28
After Siffin

• Ali Muawiya agreed to arbitration, though the
  sources depict Ali as very unhappy with the
  situation
• It seems as though dissent within Alis ranks
  forced him to accept the arbitration
• Muawiya by contrast seems to have been keen on
  the proposal
• At any rate, the two sides agreed to select two
  arbitrators who would then spend one year
  negotiating with each other
• They would then have power to settle the matter
  between them
• Muawiya chose Amr ibn al-As, a wily politician
• Ali chose Abu Musa al-Ashari, a former governor
  of Kufa and seemingly a lukewarm supporter of his
• The choice seems a strange one, modern authors
  (such as Madelung) argue that the choice of Abu
  Musa was forced on Ali by Kufan elements unhappy
  at the prospect of prolonged war

29
After Siffin

• Abu Musa and Amr met on at least 2 occasions
• Tradition holds that the wily Amr outwitted Abu
  Musa
• According to their agreement, both men would
  disavow their respective patrons and then
  initiate a shura to choose the most suitable
  candidate
• However, at the final public meeting, Amr refused
  to follow Abu Musas lead and publicly declared
  Muawiya to be the rightful caliph
• Thus not only had Muawiya been declared
  legitimate, but Ali had had his own authority
  questioned
• Although it is hard to see why Ali did not disown
  the arbitration, it certainly did weaken his
  authority
• The meeting thus broke up in hostility and mutual
  recrimination
• Fighting soon broke out again
• During late 39AH early 40AH, Muawiya sent a
  strong force under one Busr ibn Abi Artah to raid
  Arabia

30
After Siffin

• The sources report that Busrs raid was both
  effective and cruel, in that many were killed and
  enslaved
• Alis governors put up some token resistance but
  were unable to defend their provinces
• This raid was also a deep challenge to Alis
  authority and was combined with an attack on
  Egypt, which was given to Amr ibn al-As
• Despite these losses, the cruelty of Busrs raid
  solidified support for Ali in Iraq and Medina

31
After Siffin the Emergence of the Khawarij

• Ali agreeing to arbitration caused a further
  split in his ranks
• A large group of religiously minded tribesmen
  seceded from his camp declaring la hukm illa
  lillah
• Or, in English, No judgement but Gods
• In other words, this group felt that Ali should
  not have submitted to arbitration but should have
  continued to fight Muawiya to the end
• After calling on Ali to repent, a large group
  left Kufa and went to Nahrawan
• The group are known by a number of names, the
  most common of which is al-Khawarij
• This means, literally, those who go out, or
  those who secede
• Despite this act of apparent sedition, Ali at
  first left them alone, preferring diplomacy
• However, the group in Nahrawan began to attack
  other settlements, declaring them apostate
• Ali thus surrounded them, and after a failed
  attempt at diplomacy, destroyed them in battle

32
The Khawarij Alis Death

• Survivors of the massacre at Nahrawan dispersed
  into the countryside
• A group of some 400 men moved towards Kufa (from
  the direction of al-Madain) and attacked a force
  of 700 sent by Ali, under the command of Shurayh
  ibn Hani
• Ali himself led an army against them and
  eventually defeated them
• Alis main attention was, however, focused on
  Muawiyas recent attacks on Arabia
• At any rate, shortly after, on Friday 17th
  Ramadan 40AH (26th January 661CE), Ali was
  assassinated in the mosque in Kufa
• His assassin was one Ibn Muljam, a khariji and a
  survivor of Nahrawan
• Upon attacking Ali, Ibn Muljam is said to
  declared The judgement belongs to God, Ali, not
  to you (al-Baladhuri Ansab al-Ashraf II 487-496)
• Ibn Muljam was apprehended before he could flee
  and Ali, who was still alive, ordered him to be
  executed if he died
• Alis death came at a time when his fortunes
  seemed to be changing
• Despite the loss of Arabia and Egypt, Iraq had
  swung firmly behind him

33
Aftermath

• Alis death created a power vacuum in Medina
• Alis eldest son, al-Hasan, was elected caliph in
  Kufa
• Hasan seems to have been a very mild man and
  perhaps realising that he could not match
  Muawiya, he made peace
• The terms of this peace meant that Hasan
  abdicated, thus making Muawiya caliph
• He received a pension and some sources report
  that he was appointed Muawiyas successor
• Having secured his authority, Muawiya marched
  into Kufa, thereby becoming the sole caliph
• Although we will look more closely at Muawiya
  next time, it is worth noting a few points now
• Firstly, in many ways, his accession marked the
  end of the power of the Medinan Islamic elite
• Later Sunni tradition acknowledges this change
  when it refers to the first four caliphs as
  Khulafa al-Rashidun (Rightly Guided Caliphs)
• Moreover, virtually all of our sources understand
  Muawiyas caliphate as marking a transition to
  hereditary kingship (mulk in Arabic)
• But, this is the subject of next week