Types of Research Aims, Objectives

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Types of ResearchAims, Objectives Hypotheses
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Introduction

• In this presentation we will
• Discuss empirical work
• Consider the role of experience
• Examine qualitative and quantitative methods
• Review the role of hypotheses
• Examine means of testing hypotheses.

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Getting Started

• It is all to common for people to believe that
  research hasnt started until data collection has
  begun.
• That is incorrect!
• All to often data collection is begun prematurely
  - before all relevant theory and literature has
  been reviewed.
• This leads to two major problems.

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Getting Started

• Data is collected which is not relevant to the
  research.
• Data that is essential is not collected.
• It is difficult to collect data once, having to
  collect a second supplementary set compounds the
  difficulty (and takes time).
• Dont rush into data collection.

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Empirical Work

• In its strictest sense empirical work is
  concerned with experience gained from
  experimentation.
• Experience involves observation, evaluation,
  memory and recall.
• Unfortunately experience is not totally reliable.

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Empirical Work

• What is important for research is that the
  problems of comprehensiveness and accuracy in
  relying on experiences are understood and their
  implications noted.
• It is essential therefore that ALL data is
  recorded accurately and speedily (memory plays
  tricks).

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Qualitative Approaches

• Tesch (1991) identifies three categories for the
  analysis of qualitative data
• Language based
• Descriptive/Interpretive
• Theory-building.

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Language based

• These methods focus on how the language is used
  and what it means.
• Techniques such as discourse analysis and
  symbolic interactionism are often employed.
• Communication flows with organisations.

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Descriptive/Interpretive

• Attempts to develop a coherent, comprehensive
  view of the subject material from the perspective
  of those who are being researched.
• The Delphi technique is one approach in which
  repeated questionnaires are used to obtain
  consensus amongst a group of experts.

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Theory-building

• Seeks to develop theory out of data collected
  during the study.
• Grounded theory is the best example of this
  approach.
• Such open-ended studies require meticulous
  recording and constant scrutiny of data to aid
  recognition of themes.

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Oakley (1994)

• Suggest that qualitative is used to describe
  research which emerges from observation of
  participants.
• Sociological
• Researcher is part of the population being
  studied.
• They can use their knowledge to isolate themes
  and develop frameworks.

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Oakley (1994) cont....

• Anthropological
• Researcher is not part of the population being
  studied
• No initial understanding or knowledge of the
  population
• Capture all data to enable hypotheses to emerge.

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Qualitative Studies

• In summary, much qualitative research concerns
  the generation of concepts through the researcher
  getting immersed in the data collection.
• To aid the analysis of the vast amount of data
  generated many advocate the use of topologies or
  taxonomies.
• Much analysis is carried out in the field.

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Quantitative Approaches

• Essentially concern making measurements by
  collecting data.
• The approach is built upon previous work which
  has established
• Principles
• Laws
• Theories.
• Which indicate data requirements.

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Quantitative Approaches

• The major question to be answered is HOW should
  the measurements be made
• Examine the hypothesised relationships in the
  research model.
• Which in turn are based on a thorough review
  theory and literature.

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Quantitative Approaches

• Throughout quantitative studies the objective is
  that the research is unaffected by the beliefs
  and values of the researcher.
• It is OBJECTIVE
• There are three main approaches to quantitative
  studies.

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Questionnaires/Interviews

• Much research in management involves obtaining
  answers to questions.
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Case Studies.
• The techniques used depend upon the scope and
  depth required for the research.

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Questionnaires/Interviews
Breadth
Questionnaire
Depth
Interview
Case Study
Breadth v Depth in Question-based studies
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Experimental studies

• Seek to measure the change in one variable
  (dependent) caused by small incremental changes
  in the other (independent) variable between a
  control group and an experimental group.
• The cause and effect in direction and magnitude
  are measured.

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Desk-based studies

• Using data collected by others can be problematic
  as the data, sampling etc have not been tailored
  to the specific project.
• However such studies are cheap.
• In some cases (macro-economics) it is the only
  way of obtaining the data required.

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Triangulation

• Many researchers seek to use triangulation
  (applying more than one research methodology) to
  substantiate the results of their research.
• However, triangulation is not a substitute for
  rigour.

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Aims Objectives

• The aim of a research project is a statement of
  what the research will do.
• What is to be investigated (qualitative
  research).
• What impact(s) the main independent variables
  have on the dependent variable (quantitative
  research).

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Aims Objectives

• The aim is a strategic statement of what the
  researcher would like to do if no constraints
  exist.
• The aim provides an indication of the context of
  the research project.

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Aims Objectives

• The objectives are statement within the aims.
• They can be considered as tactical statements
  that, in the light of constraints, translate the
  aims into inter-related yet self-sufficient
  coherent statements of what the researcher hopes
  to achieve.

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Aims Objectives

• Objectives specify what will be known at the end
  of the project that isnt known at its beginning
  AND has been revealed by the research.
• In qualitative studies the objectives may also
  concern what is being studied.

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Hypotheses

• Not all research project have hypotheses.
• Fundamental research
• Where there is little previous research.
• However, for the vast majority of research it is
  possible and important to draw on theory and
  literature to formulate hypotheses.

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Hypotheses

• Where hypotheses are formulated they act as
• A focus for the work
• Describe the relationships to be tested
• Define the boundary of the project.

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Hypotheses

• Remember an hypothesis is a statement of
  conjecture which can be tested rigourously to
  remove as much Of the supposition (uncertainty)
  and replace it with knowledge (probability) as
  possible.

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Hypotheses

• In testing an hypothesis you should seek to
  provide evidence, through the results of testing,
  to support or refute the statement at an
  appropriate level of probability (confidence).
• The specification of confidence normally involves
  the use of statistics.

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Testing Hypotheses

• Testing an hypothesis usually involves collecting
  data and performing analyses on a representative
  sample of a population.
• Sampling involves the application of statistics
  to show that the sample is a sub-group of the
  population such that their means and
  distributions are the same.

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Testing Hypotheses

• In essence samples should reflect the structure
  of the population.
• Most populations and samples are assumed to have
  a normal distribution (Bell shaped) and as such
  exhibit certain standard properties.
• It is about this assumption that most (simple)
  statistical tests are based.

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Confidence Levels

• From a knowledge of the mean and standard
  deviation the area under a normal distribution
  can be found.
• Thus for a particular combination of values we
  can estimate the level of confidence which can be
  placed on the variability of results.

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Confidence Limits

• These are known as confidence limits
• 5 (significant)
• 1 (highly significant)
• 0.1 (very significant).
• These confidence limits really come into play
  when we are trying to establish whether there is
  a difference between 2 distributions.

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The Null Hypothesis

• The null hypothesis speculates that there is no
  difference between the observations made from two
  groups, i.e. that any apparent differences in the
  mean and standard deviation can be explained by
  sampling error.

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Student t Test

• The null hypothesis is normally tested by
  applying a student t test to the data.
• The t statistic is compared with tables of the t
  distribution and level of significance
  established.
• In essence the t test establishes whether the
  sample means are the same as the population mean.

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Statistics

• Those of you who are not familiar with statistics
  should consult any standard text.

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Summary

• In this presentation we have
• Examined empirical work
• Qualitative and quantitative methods
• Hypotheses
• Testing hypotheses.
• Next Research Methodologies.........