Information economy

1
Information economy

• Todays economy
• manufacturing, distributing, and retailing items
• but also publishing, banking, CDs, film making,
  bills.
• main product is creation and dissemination of
  information
• Future economy likely to be dominated by
  information
• e.g. smart coffee machines, wireless tags on
  groceries
• Can represent in two ways analog (items) and
  digital (bits)
• Digital is better
• computers manipulate digital information
• infinitely replicable
• networks can move bits efficiently

• We need ways to represent all types of
  information as bits
• Ways to move lots of bits everywhere, cheaply,
  and with quality of service

2
Common network technologies

• Two successful computer networks
• telephone network
• Internet
• What comes next? (next-generation Internet)
• something like an ATM network or MPLS or IPv6 or?

3
The Telephone Network

4

T??ef????? d??t??
1920s A a?a??????? s??desµ??
ep????????a?. ? µeta???? (switching) ????ta?
?e????a?t???. 1988 To f???t??? d??t?? e??a?
p???? ??a ??f?a?? d??t?? p?? p??spe?a??eta? ap?
t?p??? a?a?????? loops. A a?a???????
s??desµ?? ep????????a?. D ??f?a??? s??desµ??
ep????????a?. ? µeta???? ???eta? ??e?t??????.

5
Is it a computer network?

• Specialized to carry voice (also carries fax,
  modem calls)
• Internally, uses digital samples
• Switches and switch controllers are special
  purpose computers
• Its design principles apply to more general
  computer networks

Concepts

• Single basic service two-way voice
• low end-to-end delay
• guarantee that an accepted call will run to
  completion
• Endpoints connected by a circuit
• signals flow both ways (full duplex)
• associated with bandwidth and buffer resources

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• Fully connected core
• simple routing
• telephone number is a hint about how to route a
  call
• hierarchically allocated telephone number space

The pieces
1. End systems 2. Transmission 3. Switching 4.
Signaling
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1. End-systems

• Transducers
• Dialer
• Ringer
• Switchhook

Since wires for reception and transmission are
shared, the received signal is also transmitted,
leading to echo. This is OK for short-distance
calls, but for long distance calls, we need to
put in echo cancellors . This is expensive and
has other disadvantages
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2. Transmission

• Link characteristics
• information carrying capacity (bandwidth)
• propagation delay
• time for electromagnetic signal to reach other
  end
• light travels at 0.7c in fiber 5 microseconds/km
• NY to SF gt 20 ms NY to London gt 27 ms
• attenuation
• degradation in signal quality with distance
• long lines need regenerators
• dispersion

9
Multiplexing

• Trunks between central offices carry 100s of
  conversations on the same wire
• Frequency Division Multiplexing bandlimit call
  to 3.4 KHz and frequency shift onto higher
  bandwidth trunk this is now obsolete
• Time Division Multiplexing
• first convert voice to samples
• each sample is rounded to the nearest
  quantization level (256 quantization levels,
  logarithmically spaced according to µ-law or
  A-law) gt 1 sample 8 bits of voice
• 8000 samples/sec gt call 64 Kbps
• output interleaves samples from n input streams
  (each with a 1-byte buffer)
• need to serve all inputs in the time it takes one
  sample to arrive gt output runs n times faster
  than input
• overhead bits mark end of frame

10
Transmission Link technologies

• Many in use today
• twisted pair
• coax cable
• terrestrial microwave
• satellite microwave
• optical fiber
• Popular today fiber, satellite

• Cost is in installation, not in link itself.
  (Builders can install twisted pair (CAT 5),
  fiber, and coax to every room. Even if only one
  of them used, still saves money.)
• For long distance, there is overprovision by up
  to ten times

11
Transmission fiber optic links

• Advantages lots of capacity, nearly error free,
  very little attenuation, hard to tap.

• Three types
• step index (multimode)
• graded index (multimode)
• single mode
• Multimode cheap, use LEDs, for short distances
  (up to a few kilometers)
• Single mode more expensive, use lasers, for
  longer distances (up to hundreds of kilometers)

12
Transmission satellites

• Long distances at high bandwidth
• Geosynchronous
• 36,000 km in the sky
• up-down propagation delay of 250 ms
• bad for interactive communication
• slots in space limited
• Nongeosynchronous (Low Earth Orbit or Medium
  Earth Orbit)
• appear to move in the sky
• we need more of them
• handoff is complicated

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3. Switching what does a switch do?

• Transfers data from an input to an output
• many ports (up to 200,000 simultaneous calls)
• need high speeds
• Some ways to switch
• space division
• time division (time slot interchange or TSI)

• If inputs are multiplexed, we need a schedule
• To build larger switches we combine space and
  time division switching elements

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4. Signaling

• Switching systems establish temporary circuits,
  and they have a switch and a switch controller.
• Switch controller is in the control plane (it
  does not touch voice samples).
• Manages the network call routing (including call
  forwarding), billing (including collect calls),
  alarms (ring bell at receiver), directory lookup
  (for 800/888 calls)

• Switch controllers are special purpose computers,
  linked by their own internal computer network
  the Common Channel Interoffice Signaling (CCIS)
  network. Messages on CCIS conform to Signaling
  System 7 (SS7) spec.

• The switch controller keeps track of the state of
  every call through a state transition diagram

15
Cellular communication

• Mobile phone talks to a base station on a
  particular radio frequency and time slot.
• Arent enough frequencies to give each mobile a
  permanent frequency/time_slot (like a wire)
• Reuse
• Temporal (if mobile is off, no frequency assigned
  to it)
• Spatial (mobiles in non-adjacent cells can use
  the same frequency)

• How to deal with a moving cell phone?
• need to track a mobile
• need to hand off existing call to new base
  station

16
Challenges for the telephone network

• Multimedia
• simultaneously transmit voice/data/video over the
  network
• people want it but existing network cant handle
  it
• bandwidth requirements
• burstiness in traffic (TSI cant skip input)
• Flexibility
• Backward compatibility of new services (huge
  existing infrastructure)
• Regulation/Competition (future telephone networks
  will no longer be monopolies how to manage the
  transition?)

17
The Internet

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What does it look like?

• The Internet has doubled in size every year since
  1969
• Soon, everyone who has a phone will also have an
  email account

• Loose collection of networks organized into a
  multilevel hierarchy
• 10-100 machines connected to a hub or a router
• service providers also provide direct dialup
  access
• or over a wireless link
• 10s of routers on a department backbone
• 10s of department backbones connected to campus
  backbone
• 10s of campus backbones connected to regional
  service providers
• 100s of regional service providers connected by
  national backbone
• 10s of national backbones connected by
  international trunks

19
Example of message routing

• traceroute henna.iitd.ernet.in
• traceroute to henna.iitd.ernet.in
  (202.141.64.30), 30 hops max, 40 byte packets
• 1 UPSON2-NP.CIT.CORNELL.EDU (128.84.154.1) 1
  ms 1 ms 1 ms
• 2 HOL1-MSS.CIT.CORNELL.EDU (132.236.230.189) 2
  ms 3 ms 2 ms
• 3 CORE1-MSS.CIT.CORNELL.EDU (128.253.222.1) 2
  ms 2 ms 2 ms
• 4 CORNELLNET1.CIT.CORNELL.EDU (132.236.100.10)
  4 ms 3 ms 4 ms
• 5 ny-ith-1-H1/0-T3.nysernet.net (169.130.61.9)
  5 ms 5 ms 4 ms
• 6 ny-ith-2-F0/0.nysernet.net (169.130.60.2) 4
  ms 4 ms 3 ms
• 7 ny-pen-1-H3/0-T3.nysernet.net (169.130.1.121)
  21 ms 19 ms 16 ms
• 8 sl-pen-21-F6/0/0.sprintlink.net
  (144.228.60.21) 16 ms 40 ms 36 ms
• 9 core4-hssi5-0.WestOrange.mci.net
  (206.157.77.105) 20 ms 20 ms 24 ms
• 10 core2.WestOrange.mci.net (204.70.4.185) 21
  ms 34 ms 26 ms
• 11 border7-fddi-0.WestOrange.mci.net
  (204.70.64.51) 21 ms 21 ms 21 ms
• 12 vsnl-poone-512k.WestOrange.mci.net
  (204.70.71.90) 623 ms 639 ms 621 ms
• 13 202.54.13.170 (202.54.13.170) 628 ms 629 ms
  628 ms
• 14 144.16.60.2 (144.16.60.2) 1375 ms 1349 ms
  1343 ms
• 15 henna.iitd.ernet.in (202.141.64.30) 1380 ms
  1405 ms 1368 ms

20
Intranet, Internet, and Extranet

• Intranets are administered by a single entity
• e.g. University of Patras campus network,
  Hellenic School Network
• Internet is administered by a coalition of
  entities
• name services, backbone services, routing
  services etc.
• Extranet is a marketing term
• refers to exterior customers who can access
  privileged Intranet services
• e.g. University of Patras could provide
  extranet service to Rio schools.

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Packets
What lies at the heart

• Self-descriptive data (packet data header)
• Packets vs. samples (as in circuit switching)
• samples are not self descriptive to forward a
  sample, we have to know where
• it came from and when we cant store it!

Store and forward

• Headers allows us to forward packets when we want
  (e.g. letters at a post office)
• Efficient use of critical resources
• Three problems a) hard to control delay within
  network, b) switches need buffers c) convergence
  of flows can lead to congestion.

22
?? ??at?e? t? Internet µa???
1. ? d?e????s?p???s? (addressing) p?? d??.
a?afe??µaste se µ?a µ??a?? st? d??t?? 2. ?
d??µ?????s? (routing) p?? ?a ft?s??µe e?e?. 3.
To Internet Protocol (IP) p?? ?a µ???µe µeta??
µa? ?ste ?a ?ata?aßa???µaste. G?a ?a µpe??
st? Internet p??pe? ?a p??e?? µ?a d?e????s? ap?
t?? administrator. ?? ??e?? µ??? ??a? s??desµ?
st? d??t?? t?te ??, a????? ??e???esa? a??????µ?
d??µ?????s??.?a pa??ta s?? p??pe? ?a ta
f??µ??e?? s?µf??a µe t? IP p??t?????? ??a ?a
?????? ?? routers t? ?a ta ??????.
23
?? TCP/IP p??t??????
24
???se?? ?? d?e????se??
?? prefix d??e? t?? a???µ? d??t???, ?a? t?
suffix d??e? t?? a???µ? t?? ?p?????st?. ?
a???µ?? d??t??? apa?te? d?e??? s??e????s?, a??? ?
a???µ?? ?p?????st? d?deta? t?p???. ? d?e????s?
p?? ??e? ??a 1, e??a? ??a limited broadcast.
25
E?a? router e??a? ??a? ??µß?? µeta?? d??t???. ??
routers ????? µ?? IP d?e????s? ??a ???e d??t??
st? ?p??? a??????.
??t?? t?? st??µ? ?p?????? p??? ap? 80000 d??t?a.
???ß??µa a? ???e?? ?a ß??e?? p??? ap? 256
µ??a???, ??e???esa? d??t?? t?p?? ?, t? ?p???
ep?t??pe? µ???? ?a? 64K µ??a??? gt wasted address
space
26
?? t?p?? d?e????s? e??a? ? 135.104.53.100?
27
??? ta LANs ???s?µ?p????? hardware (? physical)
addresses ??a ?a f??t?????? ta pa??ta
?.?. Ethernet (ta ped?a e??a? se bytes ??
d?e????se?? sta p?a?s?a e??a? hardware
d?e????se??)
Ge????, ?? ?????? d?e????se?? µp??e? ?a e??a?
stat???? ? d??aµ????
28
?ddress Resolution Techniques
H IP d?e????s? p??pe? ?a µetat?ape? se hardware
d?e????s? ??a ?a sta?e? t? pa??t? st? LAN.
1. Table Lookup
2. Closed-Form Computation ???a? d??at? ?ta? ??
hardware d?e????se?? e??a? d??aµ????. ?.?.
hardware_address ip_address 0xff
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3. Address Resolution µe a?ta??a?? µ???µ?t??
?.?. ?? ?RP p??t??????
?? address resolution ???eta? ???e f??? t?p???
??a ??a d??t??.
30
???f? ARP µ???µat??
??a??a?t??? µp??e? a? ???s?µ?p????e? ??p????
server ??a Address Resolution. ?p?s?? µp??e? ?a
???s?µ?p??e?ta? caching ??a µe??s? t?? a???µ??
t?? µ???µ?t?? p?? st?????ta?.
31
Ep??efa??da e??? IP datagram
???µ?????s? e??? IP datagram
32
?p??efa???da ??a t?? ep?µe?? ?e??? t?? ??
p??t??????? (IPv6)
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Routing

• How to get to a destination given its IP address?

• Strictly speaking, you need next hop information
  for every node in the network (10s of millions).
• With hierarchical design, we need next hop
  information for the nodes in the same sub-network
  (thats OK), and also next hop information for
  every network in the Internet (gt 80,000 now)
• Instead, keep detailed routes only for local
  neighborhood for unknown destinations, use a
  default router
• Reduces size of routing tables at the expense of
  non-optimal paths

34
Endpoint control

• Key design philosophy
• do as much as possible at the endpoint
• dumb network
• exactly the opposite philosophy of telephone
  network
• Layer above IP compensates for network defects
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Can run over any available link technology
• but no quality of service
• modification to TCP requires a change at every
  endpoint

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Challenges

• IP address space shortage
• because of free distribution of inefficient Class
  B addresses
• decentralized control gt hard to recover
  addresses, once handed out
• even small devices will soon need an IP address
• Decentralization
• allows scaling, but makes reliability next to
  impossible
• cannot guarantee delay, bandwidth or buffer
  resources
• hard to guarantee security there is no control
  over who can join! encryption is a partial
  solution, but who manages keys?
• no uniform solution for accounting and billing
  (cant even reliably identify users)
• no equivalent of yellow pages (hard to reliably
  discover a users email address)
• nonoptimal routing

• Multimedia
• requires network to support quality of service of
  some sort (hard to integrate into current
  architecture store-and-forward gt shared buffers
  gt traffic interaction gt hard to provide service
  quality)
• requires user to signal to the network what it
  wants
• but Internet does not have a simple way to
  identify streams of packets
• nor are routers required to cooperate in
  providing quality
• and there is no pricing!

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ATM Networks

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Why ATM networks?

• Different information types require different QoS
• Telephone networks support a single QoS (and at a
  high cost)
• Internet supports no QoS (but it is flexible and
  cheap)
• ATM networks are meant to support a range of
  service qualities at a reasonable cost.
  Potentially can replace both the telephone
  network and the Internet

Design goals

• Providing end-to-end QoS
• High bandwidth
• Scalability
• Cost-effective

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How far along are we?

• Basic architecture has been defined
• But delays have resulting in ceding desktop to IP
• We may never see end-to-end ATM
• but its ideas continue to powerfully influence
  design of next-generation Internet
• Internet technology ATM philosophy
• Note--two standardization bodies
• ATM Forum
• International Telecommunications
  Union-Telecommunications Standardization Sector
  (ITU-T)

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Concepts

• 1. Virtual circuits
• 2. Fixed-size packets (cells)
• 3. Small packet size
• 4. Statistical multiplexing
• 5. Integrated services
• Together
• can carry multiple types of traffic
• with end-to-end quality of service

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1. Virtual circuits

• Telephone network operates in synchronous
  transmission mode
• the destination of a sample depends on where it
  comes from, and when it came
• idle users consume bandwidth
• links are shared with a fixed cyclical schedule
  gt quantization of link capacity (cant dial
  bandwidth)

• ATM uses packets (header indicates destination
  gtarbitrary schedule and no wasted bandwidth)
• Two ways to use packets
• carry entire destination address in header
• carry only an identifier

Data
Sample ATM cell Datagram
Data
VCI
Data
Addr.
41
Virtual circuits (contd.)

• Ids save on header space
• But need to be pre-established
• We also need to switch Ids at intermediate points
  
• Need translation table and connection setup

42
Features of virtual circuits

• All packets must follow the same path
• Switches store per-VCI state
• can store QoS information
• Signaling gt separation of data and control
• Small Ids can be looked up quickly in hardware
• harder to do this with IP addresses
• Setup must precede data transfer
• delays short messages
• Switched vs. Permanent virtual circuits

• Ways to reduce setup latency
• preallocate a range of VCIs along a path (Virtual
  Path)
• send data cell along with setup packet
• dedicate a VCI to carry datagrams, reassembled at
  each hop

43
2. Fixed-size packets

• Advantages
• Simpler buffer hardware
• Simpler line scheduling
• Easier to build large parallel packet switches
• Disadvantages
• segmentation and reassembly cost
• last unfilled cell after segmentation wastes
  bandwidth

3. Small packet size

• At 8KHz, each byte is 125 microseconds
• The smaller the cell, the less an end user has to
  wait to fill it
• packetization delay
• The smaller the packet, the larger the header
  overhead
• Standards body balanced the two to prescribe 48
  bytes 5 byte header 53 bytes
• gt maximal efficiency of 90.57

44
4. Statistical multiplexing

• Suppose cells arrive in bursts
• each burst has 10 cells evenly spaced 1 second
  apart
• gap between bursts 100 seconds
• Average cell rate0.09 cells/sec. Peak cell
  rate1 cell/sec (for each flow)
• What should be service rate of output line?

• We can trade off worst-case delay against speed
  of output trunk
• Statistical Multiplexing Gain (SMG) sum of peak
  input / output rate
• Whenever long term average rate differs from
  peak, we can trade off service rate for delay

45
5. Integrated service

• Traditionally, voice, video, and data traffic on
  separate networks
• Integration
• easier to manage
• innovative new services
• How do ATM networks allow for integrated service?
• lots of bandwidth hardware-oriented switching
• support for different traffic types
• Signaling and resource reservation
• admission control
• easier scheduling

46
Challenges

• Quality of service (defined, but not used)
• Scaling (little experience)
• Standardization (political and slow)

• IP
• a vast, fast-growing, non-ATM infrastructure
• interoperation is difficult, because of
  fundamentally different design philosophies
• connectionless vs. connection-oriented
• resource reservation vs. best-effort
• different ways of expressing QoS requirements