Evaluation%20of%20Informatics%20Tools%20in%20Primary%20Care

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Evaluation of Informatics Tools in Primary Care

• Frank Sullivan, Prof. of RD TCGP, Dundee
• Liz Mitchell, Research Fellow, Glasgow
• Claudia Pagliari, Lecturer in Psychology, Dundee

f.m.sullivan_at_dundee.ac.uk h.c.pagliari_at_dundee.ac
.uk edm1a_at_clinmed.gla.ac.uk
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Informatics

• The study of the
• acquisition,
• processing and
• use of information.
• Friedman CP, Wyatt JC. Evaluation methods in
  medical informatics. New York Springer 1997.

Informatik Informatique
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Primary Care in the Information Age

• Moving from
• Popper world 2
• Notions, intuitions, judgements, mystique
• Popper world 3
• Objective reality open to criticism and logical
  correction
• LL Weed. Clinical judgement revisited
• Meth.Inf. Med 199938279-86

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GP Computer Screens and Prompts
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Information Age Consultations
Reference Information including guidelines
Education
Recall
Retrieval
Electronic Medical Record
Clinician
Patient
Consultation
Sullivan FM, et al
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Problem 1 Limited evaluation of informatics
tools

• Failure to evaluate new resources is a major
  problem
• Often top-down, technologist/manager - driven
  development, with little involvement of end-users
  in the process.
• Expensively developed tools often discarded due
  to unanticipated technical difficulties or
  people and organizational issues.

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Problem 2 Inappropriate evaluation

• RCTs aimed at measuring hard clinical and
  economic outcomes may not always be appropriate
  for informatics systems because
• a) they are not drugs but multifaceted procedural
  interventions and
• b) the type of questions asked of an informatics
  evaluation are broader, dealing as much with
  end-users acceptance and use of the system as
  with external outcomes.

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Thinking about the WHOLE

• The RCT may provide useful information but it can
  only give part of the story
• Comprehensive evaluation of health informatics
  tools requires a broader range of research
  methods, involving both quantitative and
  qualitative approaches.
• The ideal method, or combination of methods, will
  be determined by the research questions and the
  context and timeframe in which it is taking
  place.

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Which research questions/whose perspective?
Does it work? Will they use it?
Developer
Purchaser
User
Is it fast? Is it fun?
What is the costbenefit?
Patient
Is it safe? Will it work?
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2 Classes of research method for informatics
evaluations

• Objectivist concerned with objective assessment
  of clearly defined variables, usually measured
  quantitatively (e.g. via experimental or
  correlational studies).
• Subjectivist based on the judgements of expert
  evaluators, system users, potential users or
  other stakeholders. Often rely on qualitative,
  anthropological research methods.
• Friedman and Wyatt, 1997

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Objectivist approaches 1

• Comparison-Based
• Employs experiments and quasi experiments.
  Comparisons based on small numbers of outcome
  variables
• e.g. Hypothesis Compliance with guideline
  recommendations to check diabetics feet annually
  will increase following introduction of
  computer-based reminders system

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Objectivist approaches 2

• Objectives-Based
• Aim is to determine whether the resource meets
  its designers objectives.
• E.g. Are fully integrated patient records
  accessible to the GP within 2 minutes?

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Objectivist approaches 3

• Decision Facilitation
• Focus on answering questions important to
  developers and administrators. Usually used in
  formative studies when developing new resources.
• e.g. Systematic study of various formats for a
  presenting guideline information on-screen,
  conducted as part of the process of resource
  development.

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Objectivist approaches 4

• Goal-Free
• Evaluators are blinded to the intended effects of
  the resource and must chart all its effects. Aims
  to reduce reporting bias and to uncover both
  unintended and intended affects.
• E.g. Conducting patient chart reviews before and
  after introduction of an information resource
  without telling the reviewer anything about the
  nature of the information resource.

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Subjectivist approaches 1

• Responsive-illuminative
• Focuses on the reports of users, e.g. feedback
  following a demonstration or period of hands-on
  familiarisation with the tool. Useful for
  technical troubleshooting and for examining
  contextual factors which may affect
  implementation.
• E.g. Observations of prototypical users in a
  laboratory setting, followed by one-to-one
  interviews about the advantages and disadvantages
  of the resource and discussion of what has been
  observed.

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Subjectivist approaches 2

• Art Criticism
• Analysis and review of a resource by a generic
  expert.
• E.g. Software review in a technical magazine.
  Inviting a noted consultant on user interface
  design to spend a day on site to offer
  suggestions regarding the prototype of a new
  system.

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Subjectivist approaches 3

• Professional review
• Management consultancy type approach using
  extended site visits by experienced peers to the
  environment in which the resource is installed.
  May employ a combination of methods including
  speaking to users, observing the system in
  operation etc.
• E.g. A site visit by a government review team to
  several research groups competing to have their
  patient management screens for asthma adopted
  nationally.

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Subjectivist approaches 4

• Quasi-legal
• Mock trial or other formal adversarial procedure
  to judge a resource. Rarely used.
• E.g. Staging a mock debate at a research group
  retreat.

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Tailoring methods to the problem

• Comprehensive evaluation may require a
  combination of research methods involving both
  objectivist and subjectivist approaches.
• The choice will relate to the specific research
  questions and the stage of the evaluation.

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General steps in informatics evaluations

• Define and prioritise study questions
• Define the "system" to be studied
• Select or develop reliable, valid measurement
  methods
• Design the demonstration study
• Choose the appropriate methodology
• Ensure that study findings can be generalized
• Carry out the evaluation study
• (NB. Demonstration and evaluation phases may
  overlap)

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Step 1 Define and prioritise your study questions

• Decide exactly what you want to find out and
  specify your objectives.
• Ideally questions should be be agreed between the
  research team, system developers, clinical
  non-clinical users patients.
• Find out what has been done before

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Step 2 Define the "system" to be studied

• Is the system simple or multifaceted? Is it one
  component or the system as a whole that is of
  interest? If the former, can you isolate and
  evaluate that part alone? (e.g diabetes
  web-suite)
• Develop a model for the evaluation to test.
  Results can be compared with the model to define
  the place of the new technology and further
  refine the model.

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Step 3 Select or develop reliable, valid
measurement methods

• The aim of so-called measurement studies is to
  ensure that the tools you use to assess outcomes
  are of as high quality as the methodology allows.
  
• Try and use established measurement tools (e.g.
  questionnaires) if available. If not, there are
  clear procedures for developing them (see
  Friedman Wyatt p71).
• It may necessary to consult widely, interview
  potential system users individually or in groups
  in order to determine which are the key variables
  to be studied.

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Step 4 Design the demonstration study

• Leaving the evaluation until after a system is in
  place restricts the degree to which the results
  of the evaluation can be used to modify the
  system, resulting in less-than-ideal
  implementation (meaning not only access but also
  acceptance and use).
• Gold standard approach to evaluation involves a
  prototyping phase or demonstration study, in
  as realistic a context as possible, followed by
  one or more user-informed iterations of the
  system (i.e. the evaluation-development cycle).
  
• May assess several objective and subjective
  variables including usability attitudes ideas
  for change barriers to implementation.

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Step 5 Choose the appropriate methodology

• Approaches to evaluation that examine informatics
  resources from multiple perspectives, using
  several methodologies, are likely to produce more
  valuable results
• Tailor methods to research questions
  stakeholder perspectives
• Ensure methodological rigor. See checklists by
  Johnston et al. Sullivan Mitchell for
  assessment criteria for experimental and
  non-experimental studies.

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Step 6 Ensuring that study findings can be
generalized

• Difficult to achieve in informatics research.
  Study effects can be context-dependent (People
  dont use computers organisations do)
• Qualitative research will focus on small
  (selected) samples, although may indicate wider
  issues which could affect generalisability of
  results
• Experimental research may be more generalizable
  but important to build-in safeguards e.g.
  increase sample sizes when randomising by
  practice to correct for intra-cluster
  correlation.

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Step 7 Carry out the evaluation study

• Preparation
• Decide whether continuation is justified.
• Firm up the methodology
• Convince the ethics committee.
• Identify liase with key stakeholders
• Consider commercial implications and intellectual
  property rights.

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evaluation study continued.

• Recruitment
• Remember - enthusiasts may not be representative
• Design strategies for recruiting patients (
  gaining consent)
• Detailed study planning
• Create written manual of study procedures.
  (Focuses on the fine detail of who does what at
  the different stages of the project. May change
  over time.)

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evaluation study continued.

• Pilot as much of your study procedure as possible
• Think carefully about where you intend to do the
  pilot work. Sites need to be representative of
  those you intend to use in the main study. Use a
  small number of test-bed sites to learn of the
  problems with the resource.
• Other issues to consider during the study
• Respond immediately to any technical problems or
  concerns expressed by participants.
• Study sites and participants should be kept
  informed of progress.
• Reward participating practices if possible