What makes humans so successful

1
Cognitive Psychology
What makes humans so successful? Are humans the
only animals than can talk? What is the
difference between language and
communication? How do we learn to talk?
2
Allen Gardner Beatrice Gardner (1969) tried to
teach a chimpanzee called Washoe to use American
Sign Language for the deaf. (Ameslan The primary
sign language used by deaf and hearing-impaired
people in the United States and Canada). If the
ape could learn a language that might give us
some clues into whether language is unique to
humans or can be used or learned by animals.
3
G G taught Washoe American Sign Language (ASL
or Ameslan) and kept a detailed daily record of
signing behaviour. By 21 months, Washoe had
mastered the use of 30 signs. She was able to
use these signs in context so that he used the
sign learned for one dog when she was introduced
to another dog. Washoe used combinations of
signs to ask for things such as gimme tickle.
4
The bar chart shows the number of signs that
Washoe knew as she got older. Months are in
units of 10
What ethical problems were there with this study?
5
G G claimed that this demonstrated some of the
key features of a language vocabulary, transfer
of vocabulary from one situation to another,
combinations and differentiation (clearly showing
understanding of the differences in sign
meanings). This would suggest that apes at
least have the cognitive ability to develop a
simple language and that therefore language
ability is not unique to humans as previously
thought.
6
There are those who have challenged those
findings Aitchison (1983) argued that Washoe had
learned to communicate but had not learned a
language and slow motion analysis of films of
Washoe may show that she was simply following the
signals made by the trainer. A language is a
number of signals (sounds, letters, gestures)
that by themselves are relatively meaningless,
but can be put together according to rules to
make an infinite number of messages.
Communication is the way information is
transmitted to another.
7

• Washoe did show some aspects of language, but was
  unable to use the higher forms of language such
  as
• Structure/Grammar
• Turn taking
• Spontaneity
• Displacement (talking about things distant in
  time and space)

This is perhaps as you might expect from an
animal with lower cognitive abilities than a
human.
8

•   It was a case study of an individual animal,
  which would provide rich and detailed information
  for analysis.
• This could also provide a starting point for
  further investigations.
• G G studied the ape over a long period of
  time
• They chose the best possible non-human animal
  subject. The Bonobo chimp is widely agreed to be
  our closest living relative.

9

• Used observations and film recording to analyse
  the behaviour of the animal. This meant that they
  could watch any data several times to check
  findings.
• The choice of ASL was suitable because it was
  an established language and did not need the ape
  to talk because apes do not have the vocal
  apparatus required to talk.
• It was pioneering research, only one such study
  had been conducted previously and this had not
  been successful.

10
Think like a psychologist. With a partner make a
list of potential problems or weaknesses of the
Gardner and Gardner study
11

•  The study was a case study of one animal.
  Washoe might have been untypical/unrepresentative
  of apes. He might have been especially bright or
  dull.
• G G had invested an enormous effort into this
  study and their very close relationship with
  Washoe could have made their observations biased
  in some way. Later analysis of films have been
  critical of their findings.
• The study may have been unethical by todays
  standards.
• There was a lack of control over testing.
  Deciding what was spontaneous language and what
  was simply copying would be very difficult to do.
  
• Was the behaviour simply a product of the
  experimental situation?
• Would another animal or the same animal produce
  these findings when placed in a more natural
  surrounding?