The International Space Station 19462006

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The International Space Station 1946-2006

• What a Long Strange Trip its Been

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• Subtitle with apologies to The Grateful Dead

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The Eternal Dream

• Living in space has long been a dream of many
  scientists and philosophers
• The ancient Greeks wondered about worlds beyond
  the Earth, as did many other peoples of the time

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• In the modern era, the mathematician
• and scientist Johannes Kepler wrote
• of a journey to the Moon
• So did Isaac Newton in his great
• Principia
• Jules Verne wrote stories of trips into
• space, as did many other science fiction
• writers of the 1800s

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• The first modern person to
• think that space travel and
• habitation was truly possible
• was Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
• (1856-1935), the Russian born
• scientist, futurist, and dreamer.
• Among his proposals for rockets
• and voyages to the stars, Tsiolkovsky foresaw
• habitats in the sky where people could live
  looking down at Earth

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Von Braun-the Space Genius

• The first person, though, to
• seriously consider the idea
• of a manned station orbiting
• Earth was the German-born
• rocket scientist Wernher
• Von Braun. As early as
• 1946, he made a crude design for a
• space station, and declared it entirely feasible

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• Von Brauns
• original 1946 space
• station concept.
• He visualized it
• as holding a number of people and orbiting
• 200 miles above the Earth

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• In 1952, Von Braun,
• with his mentor,
• Herman Oberth,
• conceived of another
• plan for a manned
• space station. This one would hold up to 50
  people and could stay aloft for years at a time

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• In 1956, Von Braun designed a space station that
  he called Horizon
• It would be of modular construction, and hold up
  to eight people

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• Although never built, Horizons modular design
  would have a great influence on future space
  stations

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The Start of NASA

• Shortly after NASA began in the late 1950s, one
  of the first priorities in establishing a human
  presence in space was the design and construction
  of a space station.

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• A number of designs were proposed in the late
  1950s and 1960s

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• A design developed by NASA engineers in 1958. It
  would use a larger version of the just designed
  Mercury capsule, along with a small space lab
  directly behind it.

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• Outpost, a design proposed by General Dynamics in
  1958. It was based on the just built Atlas Rocket

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Apollo X

• This was also proposed
• by NASA in 1961,
• shortly after the Apollo
• Capsule and the
• Saturn rocket were
• designed. A small lab
• would take the place of
• the Lunar Lander

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• Lockheed proposed
• this design in 1963.
• It would hold 10
• people

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MORL

• The Manned Orbiting Research Laboratory was
  proposed by Douglass Aircraft in 1964

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The Orbital Workshop-1964

• This was also proposed by Douglass Aircraft. It
  would use the third stage of the Saturn as the
  main station, with other modules added on.
  Eventually, it became the prototype for Skylab

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NASAs LORL

• This design, unveiled in
• 1965, was called LORL
• Large Orbiting Research
• Laboratory
• A space shuttle sized craft
• would carry astronauts to
• and from it.

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BaseLine-1970

• NASAs BaseLine station would use existing Apollo
  technology
• It was conceived as a successor to Skylab

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At the Same Time-The Blue Space Program

• In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Air Force
  was also working on its own manned space program,
  completely separate from NASAs
• One of its main projects was a small manned space
  station devoted to classified military
  experiments in space
• Work was begun on this in 1961

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The MOL Project

• In 1963, the Air Force officially announced a
  manned orbiting military space station program to
  be known as the Manned Orbiting Laboratory(MOL).
• The MOL space station would essentially be the
  third stage of a Titan III missile. It and a
  modified Gemini capsule(called Gemini-B) carrying
  two astronauts would be launched into orbit for
  missions of up to 30 days.
• The Air Force gave them the name of
  aerospace research pilots

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• MOL in space
• MOL would
• consist of two
• elements a
• modified Gemini
• capsule, known
• as Gemini B, and a
• cylindrical space station using the third
  stage of a Titan III missile

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• At the end of each mission, the space station
  would be discarded, and the crew would return to
  Earth in the Gemini B capsule
• By 1964, the program was up and running, aiming
  for a first manned launch by 1968.
• Seven Air Force and Navy pilots were selected for
  the program in 1965 another ten were chosen in
  1966
• Twelve MOL missions were initially planned, three
  a year through 1972

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• A cutaway of the proposed MOL space station

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The End of MOL

• In November 1966, a Titan III carrying a dummy
  MOL space station and an unmanned Gemini B
  capsule was successfully launched from Cape
  Canaveral.
• However, after that, the program ran into major
  financial problems. It was cut from 12 missions
  to 8 and then to 3, and finally was cancelled in
  1969.
• The pilot trainees were transferred to NASAs
  astronaut corps. Most of them, like Bob Crippen
  and Richard Truly, ended up flying the Space
  Shuttle.

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• The MOL test launch in
• November 1966

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The Apollo-Space Station

• In 1965, as the Apollo Moon program was well on
  the way, NASA engineers and administrators began
  plans for a followup to it
• i.e., what was the next big step in space?
• The logical answer was a manned semi-permanent
  space station

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The AAP

• By 1968, after much debate, the design was
  essentially complete a one piece space station
  the size of a school bus to be launched into
  Earth orbit atop a Saturn 5 rocket
• Three man crews would be ferried to and from it
  using the Apollo/Saturn 1B system
• This became known as the AAP-the Apollo
  Applications Program

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• Starting in 1972, a succession of crews would
  stay aboard the station for up to 90 days each

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AAP Becomes Skylab

• By 1970, the name had been changed to Skylab
• Ten Skylab missions were planned, two a year,
  from 1972 to 1977
• Since, at this time, NASA was still intent on
  nine Apollo moon missions, through Apollo 20. The
  Skylab program would run concurrently with the
  Lunar program through 1974

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• However, starting in 1971, NASA financial
  cutbacks resulted in downgrading the program
• The number of Skylab missions was cut from ten to
  six, and then to three
• At the same time, the Lunar landing program was
  cut Apollos 18, 19, and 20 were cancelled.

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• Skylab eventually was launched in 1973, after the
  Moon landing program ended
• Skylab 1-a Saturn 5 carrying the space station,
  suffered severe damage during launch
• Skylab 2-was launched on May 25, 1973, carrying
  three astronauts. They spent 28 days aboard the
  station, fixing the damage and preparing it for
  future crews

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• The Saturn 5
• and Skylab on the
• launch pad at the
• Kennedy Space
• Center

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• The launch of Skylab, May 14, 1973. A few minutes
  after launch, the space station, which made up
  the third stage, suffered major damage.

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• Skylab 3-launched July 28, 1973-three astronauts
  spent 56 days aboard the space station
• Skylab 4-launched November 16, 1973-the crew of
  three spent 84 days aboard the station.
• After the Skylab 4 crew left in February 1974,
  the space station was put into sleep mode, in
  the hopes that it might be used again

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• Skylab in orbit. One of its solar panels was torn
  off during launch also the umbrella replaces
  missing solar insulation that was also ripped off
  during the assent to space.

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• Another view of
• Skylab-from the
• first crew

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• Apollo docked to
• Skylab

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• Inside Skylab-during the third mission-1974

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• In 1976, it was found that the Sun was heating up
  the upper atmosphere, slowing down Skylab and
  dragging it towards Earth. At this time, the
  Space Shuttle was scheduled to make its first
  flight in 1977. A proposal was made to send the
  Shuttle, on its second mission, to Skylab, tether
  it, and boost it to a higher orbit. This never
  happened, and Skylab fell back to Earth in 1979.

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• With the end of Skylab, Americas space station
  dreams were dashed until the 1980s

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Enter the Shuttle-Space Station Era

• With the advent of the Space
• Shuttle era in the early 1970s,
• NASA began studies for what
• was again termed the next
• logical step-the shuttle
• needed someplace to go to.

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The Shuttle-Space Station Proposals

• A number of design concepts were considered over
  a period of almost twelve years 1972-1984

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The Requirements

• The new space station would have the capacity to
• 1) Hold up to six permanent crew members
• 2) be built and regularly serviced by the Space
  Shuttle
• 3)Serve as a satellite repair facility, science
  laboratory, industrial factory, and debarkation
  point for Moon and Mars missions

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• This modular space station was designed in 1972
  by NASA as followup to Skylab, in the early days
  of the Space Shuttle program.
• It would be a hybrid project, using elements of
  both the Apollo and Space Shuttle programs

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S-VI Advanced Station-1973

• This was also proposed
• as a followup to Skylab
• It would use Apollo
• components and a Saturn
• S-VI third stage as the
• space station
• It could hold up to six
• crewmembers

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Manned Orbiting Facility-1975

• This concept was developed by NASA and
  McDonald-Douglass as part of the Space Shuttle
  development program.Although it was never built,
  part of it was used for the Shuttles SpaceLab
  program.

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AMSS

• This was AMSS-Austere Manned Space Station
• Rockwell designed this modular station in 1976.
  Elements of it were later used on Space Station
  Freedom. It could hold as many as ten astronauts.

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SAMSP

• The Science and Applications Manned Space
  Platform was proposed by the Marshall Space
  Flight Center in 1978. It would use modules
  derived from SpaceLab, and hold 3-4 crewmembers

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• This was the SOC-Space Operations Center,
  designed at the Johnson Space Center in 1979.

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• A simplified station, 1982 design concept

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The Power Tower

• This was a design
• concept proposed by
• NASA in early 1983.
• It almost became Space
• Station Freedom
• Elements of it were used
• on the eventual design
• of Freedom

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Space Station Freedom Announced

• The new space facility was announced by President
  Reagan in his State of the Union speech in
  January 1984.
• He named it Space Station Freedom, and asked
  Congress for funding to make it habitable and
  complete by 1992

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• Space Station Freedom, 1984. It envisioned a
  cluster of modules on a 400 foot boom,with power
  provided by huge banks of solar panels

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• Reagan asked Congress to fund the station, at a
  price tag of 8-12 billion, in 1984 dollars
• Almost immediately, the space station was
  attacked by members of Congress and critics of
  the space program
• The main contention was the cost it was
  considered either too expensive, or too
  underfunded

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• NASA would spend the next seven years redesigning
  and modifying the space station to meet
  Congresss demands

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• This is the dual keel Freedom of 1985. It is a
  modified version of the original proposal

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• This was one of the modified space stations,
  proposed in 1986. The crew complement has been
  cut to four and some of the science and
  industrial modules have been eliminated.

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• The Dual Tank proposal in 1988. This envisioned
  two shuttle external fuel tanks, emptied,
  cleaned, and filled with laboratory and
  habitation hardware.

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Space Shuttle Freedom

• Another proposal, which never
• got beyond the planning stage,
• was to design and built a mini
• space station of only two or
• three modules
• Then one of the space shuttles,
• probably Columbia, carrying the
• European built Spacelab, would be modified
  and upgraded to dock with it and remain in orbit
  for up to 45-50 days at a time, while the crew
  carried out its mission program.

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Skylab II

• Yet another proposal to
• was to take the backup
• Skylab space station(which
• was on display in the Smithsonian Air and
• Space Museum), refurbish and modify it, and
  launch
• it using an unmanned heavy lift version of the
  shuttle
• This idea also never got beyond the planning stage

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Space Station Fred

• This was a scaled down version of Freedom,
  proposed in 1991. It could hold a crew of three,
  and was dubbed Space Station Fred

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• Ironically, Congress wanted NASA to reduce the
  cost of the space station, but as the years went
  by with all of the wrangling and modifications,
  the cost kept rising.
• By 1986, in the wake of the Challenger disaster,
  a review of the program found that it would cost
  over 18 billion

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• The next year, 1987, it was estimated that five
  shuttle flights a year would be needed to
  maintain the station once it was finished, which
  added to the cost.
• By 1990, even with a reduced capacity space
  station, the estimated cost had ballooned to
  almost 30 billion for the entire project,
  including its 15 year lifetime.

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• By 1992, Space Station Freedom had gone through
  seven major design modifications
• Most of its science facilities were gone
• Many of the industrial facilities were eliminated
  as well
• The crew capacity had been reduced from 6 to 4 to
  3
• The initial construction timeline had been pushed
  back from 1992 to 1995 to 1997

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• In 1993, even though plans for the station were
  now firm and ready to begin construction and
  launch, the Clinton Administration decided to
  cancel the project.
• Political support was lacking
• The Cold War space race with the Russians was
  essentially over
• The overall costs had risen again to almost 40
  billion
• In June 1993, Congress defeated the funding
  proposal for the station as such, it was dead

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In the Meantime-What Were the Russians Doing?
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The Russian Space Station Program

• Since the early days of space travel, the
  Russians have always seen space stations as an
  important part of space travel.
• The Russian space station program goes back to
  1965, about the same time as the American space
  station program.
• The Russians were frightened by the U.S.s
• MOL and AAP(Skylab) programs, seeing them as
  Americas attempt to dominate space militarily.

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• The Russian space station program was called
  DOS, and the stations themselves were given the
  name of Zarya. The first Zarya station was
  scheduled to be launched in 1969, but internal
  disputes and engineering delays forced it back.
  When it was finally launched in March 1971, it
  was given the name of Salyut, to salute the
  tenth anniversary of Yuri Gagarins Vostok 1
  launch

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The Salyut 1 Disaster

• Soyuz 10, the first manned crew to visit Salyut 1
  in April 1971, could not dock due to a broken
  docking latch. The mission was aborted
• Soyuz 11, in June 1973, docked successfully, and
  the crew spent 23 days aboard the station,
  However, during reentry, the Soyuz developed a
  leak, and the three man crew, who were not
  wearing space suits, were dead by the time the
  capsule landed

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• Artists impression of Salyut 1

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• Salyut 1 was never used again, and was deorbited
  about a year after its launch

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Other Salyuts

• Salyut 2 was a military space station, completely
  separate from the civilian space station program
• It was launched on April 3, 1973 but it was
  never manned, apparently due to engineering
  problems

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• Conjectural drawing of Salyut 2 it is also
  believed to look similar to Salyuts 3 and 5

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Salyut 3

• Salyut 3 was launched on June 24, 1974 this too
  was a military space station. Like Salyut 2, the
  Russians gave out virtually no information about
  it.
• It was manned once, by the Soyuz 14 crew, for 16
  days.
• A second crew failed to dock, and the station was
  eventually deorbited.

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• Conjectural drawing of Salyut 3. The Russians
  have never revealed what the military space
  stations looked like.

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Salyut 4

• Salyut 4 was launched on December 26, 1974 it
  was a civilian station, based on the same
  engineering design as Salyut 1
• Two crews manned it one for 29 days, the other
  for 63 days
• It was deorbited in late 1975

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• Drawing of Salyut 4 with Soyuz spacecraft
  attached. The center solar panels rotated to take
  full advantage of the Sun.

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Salyut 5

• This was another military space station the
  Russians released almost no information about it
• It was launched on June 22, 1976
• Two crews Soyuzes 21 and 24, manned it, for 48
  and 18 days. Soyuz 23 was intended to visit it,
  but the mission failed.
• This was the last of the military space stations

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• Another conjectural drawing of Salyut 3/5 with
  Soyuz craft docked to it. The military Salyuts
  were also given the code name of Almaz

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Salyut 6-A new kind of space station

• Salyut 6 was launched on September 29, 1977
• It was a second generation station designed for
  long duration missions, and supplied by an
  unmanned cargo craft called Progress
• It also had two docking ports, one of which could
  accommodate an add-on module to increase its size.

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• Salyut 6 in space with docked Soyuz craft. This
  was the most successful of the early Russian
  space stations.

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The Salyut 6 Program

• During its three and a half year lifetime, Salyut
  6 was manned by six crews with missions of 96,
  140, 175, 185, 12, and 74 days respectively.
• It also hosted short(5-7 day) visits by ten other
  crews.
• It was extremely successful in both technological
  and biomedical data gathering, as well as long
  term experience in space

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Salyut 7

• Salyut 7 was designed as a follow-up to Salyut 6,
  and was probably the Salyut 6 backup station. It
  was launched on April 19, 1982.
• In three and a half years, it hosted five long
  duration missions, of 211, 149, 237, 132, and 64
  days. It also hosted several short term guest
  crews.
• One of its main technical achievements was the
  addition of the semi-military Star module, which
  attached to one of the docking ports, and
  effectively doubled the space stations size

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The Era of Mir

• Mir was launched on February
• 20, 1986. With the rise of
• Mikhail Gorbachov to the Soviet
• leadership, his policy of Glasnost
• (Openness) spread to the space
• program. The launch was announced
• beforehand, was televised live on
• Soviet TV, and pictures of Mirs construction
  were displayed in magazines and newspapers.

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• The core module of the Mir space station was
  based on the Salyut 6/7 design, with a major
  addition its forward section had five docking
  ports, all of which would eventually be used by
  additional modules, thereby quadrupling its size
  and interior capacity in its final form
• It was a design for modular construction, and was
  a major step to what would eventually be the
  International Space Station.

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• Mir(which means peace in Russian) being
  constructed. This image, released the day of its
  launch, was extraordinary. It was one more
  indication of a new and more open Soviet Union
  under Mikhail Gorbachov.

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• Starting in 1987, however, the Soviet space
  program, and Mir in particular, began running
  into financial trouble for the first time
• Gorbachovs Glasnost policy allowed free and
  open elections for the first time in Soviet
  history. A number of elected Soviet
  representatives voiced their opposition to the
  blank check spending policy for the space
  program, feeling the money could be better used
  for domestic programs

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• In particular, Boris Yeltsin,
• one of the best known and most
• influential representatives,
• suggested that the manned
• space program be ended
• altogether until the Soviet
• Union became economically
• stable.

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• Yelstins proposal was voted down, but in 1988
  the new legislature cut the space programs
  budget for the first time in its history
• As a result, several Mir missions had to be
  cancelled, others were postponed, and the add-on
  modules were delayed for up to two years.

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• The Mir program continued, now at a much reduced
  level
• Still, in 1987, the first of several add-on
  modules was launched and attached to the rear
  docking port
• This was Kvant,(Quantum in Russian), which
  would be used to study x-rays and other high
  energy particles. Originally, Kvant was to be
  used with Salyut 7. But engineering problems
  delayed it, and mission managers decided to use
  it on Mir instead.

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• Mir in orbit in 1988. The Kvant module is
  attached to the rear docking port with a Soyuz
  spacecraft docked to it. The multiple docking
  adaptor can clearly be seen on the front of the
  space station.

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• The next module, Kvant 2, was not launched until
  November 1989, over two years behind schedule.
  When docked to Mir, it made the space station
  look like a giant L.
• The third module, Kristall,was launched in June
  1990. Now Mir looked like a T

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• Mir in 1993, with the Kvant 2 and Kristall
  modules attached. Also attached are a Soyuz TM
  spacecraft and a Progress supply craft

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• Because of financial problems, the final two
  modules would not be launched for five more years
• The Spektr module was launched on May 20, 1995,
  and attached to the space station a few days
  later. Essentially, it served as living and
  research quarters for the American astronauts who
  stayed aboard Mir in the late 1990s

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• The space shuttle Atlantis docked to Mir in 1996

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• A docking module was attached to Krystall in
  November 1995 by the U.S. space shuttle Atlantis.
  It would be the docking port for space shuttle
  missions to Mir
• The final module was Priroda. It was launched on
  April 23, 1996, and was used for remote Earth
  sensing

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• Mir as seen
• From the space
• shuttle in 1997.
• The shuttle
• docking port is
• the orange
• module at the
• bottom, attached to Krystall. Kvant 2 is on the
  left, Priroda is at top, and Spektr is on the
  right.

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• A diagram of Mir.
• fully built, with a
• space shuttle
• attached to it.
• Together, the two
• had an Earth weigh
• of over 500,000 lbs,
• the largest object ever
• in space.

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The Legacy of Mir

• Mirs lifetime was intended
• to be only five years
• With the space program
• budget cuts, the collapse of the Soviet
  Union, and
• participation by the United States, Mir was
  occupied for 14 years, until 2000(including two
  times when it was vacant)
• It hosted 38 crews, including 9 space shuttle
  visits, and 29 long duration missions.

102

• The last Soyuz-Mir mission, in April 2000,
  returned to Earth in July, and Mir was shut down

103

• For a time after that, there was talk that a
  private Dutch-English company, MirCorp, would
  buy Mir and use it for privately sponsored and
  financed missions, but the Russians formally
  stated that Mir was too old and too unstable to
  be used again.
• Russian space program officials started making
  plans to detach the modules and take apart the
  station little by little.

104

• They eventually decided that this would be too
  expensive
• In March 2001, Mir was maneuvered into a lower
  orbit, and on March 23, it reentered the
  atmosphere and burned up over the South Pacific.

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• The remnants of Mir reentering the Earths
  atmosphere, March 23, 2001

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Mir II

• Even before Mir was launched, Russian space
  program officials were thinking about its
  replacement
• They were also afraid that the U.S.s Freedom
  would take away the spotlight from their space
  stations
• Work on Mir II began in 1987. The Russians
  considered it the next step in the permanent
  habitation of space
• It would be a modular station, built around a
  Salyut 6/7/Mir core module named Zarya,

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• assembled in space, and look similar to the
  U.S.s proposed Space Station Freedom(which it
  was essentially based on)

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• A drawing of the proposed Mir II. When fully
  assembled, it would have housed up to eight
  cosmonauts on a permanent basis, and would have
  been serviced by the Buran space shuttle

109

• The Mir II program called for the core module to
  be launched in 1991, cosmonaut habitation
  beginning shortly after that, and the station
  finished by 1994.
• With the budget cuts starting in 1988, however,
  the program slipped further and further behind
  schedule
• As Mir IIs prospects became less and less, space
  program managers made plans for long-term
  operation of Mir

110

• 1992 and 1993 would be a turning point between
  the two space powers.
• In the U.S., the Space Shuttle was still
  struggling to come back from the Challenger
  disaster and find a purpose for its expensive
  existence
• Space Station Freedom was about to be cancelled
  due to excessive costs

111
In Russia

• The Soviet Union collapsed in the fall of 1991,
  and the new Russian Republic, with Boris Yeltsin
  as its president, took its place.

112

• Under the new government, the Russian space
  program was completely reorganized
• All of the various semi-independent design,
  construction, and launch bureaus were brought
  under the control of one organization, APO
  Energia, and it, in turn, would be run
• by the newly established Russian
• Space Agency, or RKA, also known
• as Roskosmos

113

• The horrendously expensive and time consuming
  Buran space shuttle program was essentially
  cancelled.

114

• Mir II was gone as well it was cancelled in 1992
• The manned space program budget was cut again, by
  almost 50

115

• In October 1993, NASA chief administrator Daniel
  Golden went to Moscow to confer with officials of
  RKA
• He came back to the U.S. with
• an extraordinary agreement
• between the two former space
• race rivals

116
The Superpower Space Agreement

• Russia and the U.S. would cooperate on a number
  of manned space ventures
• The Space Shuttle would make flights to the Mir
  space station to deliver crews and supplies
• Nine American astronauts would undertake long
  duration missions aboard Mir
• Russia, which cancelled the Mir 2 station, and
  the U.S., which cancelled Space Station Freedom,
  would merge the two projects into one space
  station

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Freedom Mir IIISSA

• It would be called ISSA, or International Space
  Station Alpha
• It could hold up to seven crewmembers at a time
• It would use components from both the Mir 2 and
  Freedom projects
• Construction would start immediately, and the
  first components would be launched in 1996

118

• A number of differences needed to be worked out
• The most serious was at what orbital inclination
  would the space station be flown
• NASA wanted it at 28o relative to the
  equator-which is what the Space Shuttle flew
  at-higher inclination orbits would require more
  launch fuel and less payload
• The Russians, however, because of their space
  centers higher latitude, launch their manned
  spacecraft into 51o orbits. They insisted on the
  higher inclination orbit.

119

• Finally, in 1995, NASA agreed to the 51o
  inclination orbit
• Eventually ESA, the Japanese Space Agency, and
  the Canadian Space Agency all agreed to join in
  the project, and contribute the modules and
  programs they had originally intended for Space
  Station Freedom/Mir II

120
The International Language

• Both the US and the Russia agreed that English
  would be the primary language aboard the space
  station
• The Russians take this language requirement very
  seriously. All the cosmonauts are expected to
  speak, read, and write fluent English
• At least two cosmonauts have been dropped from
  the space station program because they failed the
  English proficiency part of their training

121

• At the same time, American astronauts assigned to
  ISS missions, especially those who fly on the
  Soyuz spacecraft, are expected to learn
  proficient Russian.

122

• Another problem had to do with the chain of
  command.
• With the initial three person crews aboard ISSA,
  two would be from one country, one from the
  other.
• Although it sounds trivial, a huge stumbling
  block ensured over who would command each mission

123

• Eventually, it was agreed that the lone member of
  each crew would command, and crews would
  alternate
• Not everyone was happy with this compromise.
  Anatoli Solovyov, the veteran cosmonaut assigned
  to the first ISSA crew, expected to be named its
  commander. When he learned that American crewmate
  William Shepherd would be the commander, he
  resigned, and was replaced with Yuri Gidzinko,
  who was much more flexible about this issue.

124
A Legacy of Distrust

• One of the most pervasive problems was a sense of
  distrust built up by years of Russian secrecy
• Part of the agreement required NASA to pay RKA
  almost 500 million a year starting in 1995.
  Essentially, NASA was subsidizing the Mir program
  and part of Russias ISSA commitment
• The Americans, though, were never quite sure of
  RKAs plans.

125

• The Russians, conditioned to secrecy, were
  reluctant to say exactly what they were doing
  with the money and their manned program
• They had a kind of trust us mentality in their
  dealings with NASA officials, who wanted to know
  their exact plans
• At one point around 1997, RKA hinted that it
  wanted to keep Mir occupied for several more
  years, despite pledges to shut down the space
  station and focus on ISSA

126

• It is said that when the first ISSA module,
  Zarya, was launched, NASA officials breathed
  sighs of relief

127

• In November 1998,
• the first module of
• ISSA was launched
• by a Proton rocket
• It was the Zarya
• Functional Cargo
• Block, or Zarya
• FGB.

128

• In December 1998, the space shuttle Endeavour
  delivered and attached the second module, the
  Unity Node 1, to Zarya
• This was followed in July 1998 by the Zvezda
  Service Module, launched by a Proton rocket from
  the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Zvezda was the Mir II
  core module, slightly modified for ISSA

129

• Zarya FGB and the
• Unity Node 1 in 1999,
• taken by the space
• shuttle

130

• (Next Slide) The The international space station
  in August 1999, just before human habitation. The
  Zvezda Service Module is attached to the Zarya
  FBG, with the Unity Node 1 on its farther end.
  Note the Mir-like multiple docking port adaptor
  between Zvezda and Zarya
• ISSA was now complete enough for human occupancy

131
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132
The First ISSA Crew

• On October 30, 2000, Soyuz
• TM-30 was launched from the
• Baikonur Cosmodrome. It
• carried the first ISSA crew
• astronaut William Shepherd
• and cosmonauts Yuri
• Gidzenko and Sergei Krikalev.

133

• They would spend the next 140 days aboard the
  unfinished space station, before returning to
  Earth on shuttle mission STS-102
• During their stay, STS-97 delivered and installed
  one of the main solar arrays, and STS-98
  delivered and attached the Destiny science
  laboratory

134

• Sergei Krikalev, holding a camera, in Zvezda,
  November 2000

135

• The Destiny science
• module, attached to
• the Unity Node 1,
• February 2001
• American astronaut
• Leroy Chaio inside
• Destiny

136

• The interior of the Zarya FGB module
• Besides supplying power and water for Zvezda,it
  is also a storage and cargo area

137

• In 2002, the Russians launched first of a new
  generation of Soyuz spacecraft-Soyuz TMA
• This newest version of Soyuz was specially
  designed to carry crews and cargo to and from
  ISSA
• It is also used as the space station lifeboat
  in the event that an emergency forces the crew to
  abandon the space station and return to Earth

138

• Also, in 2002, three
• shuttle missions added
• more solar panels,
• trusses, and equipment
• to the growing space
• Station
• A new version of the
• Shuttles Canadarm
• was attached as well

139

• Three person crews were coming and returning with
  regularity, each spending four to six months
  aboard the space station
• Completion was scheduled for 2006.
• Until

140

• February 1, 2003,when the
• shuttle Columbia, mission
• STS-107, returning from
• a 14 day flight, broke up
• over Texas, killing all seven
• astronauts

141
The Columbia Disaster

• The cause of the accident was found to be a piece
  of foam on the external fuel tank that broke off
  at launch and hit Columbias wing, damaging the
• protective heat tiles

142

• Although NASA committed itself to getting the
  shuttle flying within a year, it would be almost
  two and half years before the next shuttle launch
  would take place.
• In the meantime, all orbital construction work on
  ISS(The Alpha name had pretty much been dropped)
  stopped
• Crews were cut back from three to two

143

• With the shuttle program halted, ISS crews had to
  use Russias Soyuz
• TMA craft to get to the space
• station and return to Earth

144

• As a result, the timeline for ISSs construction
  was revised
• By 2004, when it was clear that the shuttle would
  not fly until at least mid 2005, estimates of the
  space stations completion were pushed back to
  2009-2010

145

• In the meantime, other
• problems presented
• themselves
• During the summer of 2003,
• astronaut Edward Lu and cosmonaut Yuri
  Malenchenko, ISS crew 7, reported some troubles
  with the environmental-life support system aboard
  ISS
• This led to speculation and stories that the
  space station was falling apart after only a few
  years in orbit, and was becoming uninhabitable

146

• Nevertheless, the Lu-Malenchenko crew stayed
  aboard ISS until the ISS 8 crew relieved them,
  and they returned to Earth in October 2003
• A few days after landing, Lu held a press
  conference at the Gagarin Space Center in Moscow
• He said that the problems aboard ISS were minor
  and easily fixed, that he and Malenchenko were
  never in any danger, and that the space station
  was perfectly safe for future human habitation

147

• In particular, Lu blasted critics and opponents
  of the space station program, defending it as a
  valuable and necessary human enterprise.

148
The Economics of ISS

• Part of the Lu-Malenchenko dispute centered on
  finances-what exactly is the cost of the
  international space station?
• Many critics of ISS argue(as space program
  critics always have) that the money could be
  better used on Earthbound social problems

149
What has been the price for ISS so far?

• Between 1994, when the international space
  station program began, and 2005, NASAs share has
  been listed as 27.2 billion.(This also includes
  design costs for the original space station
  Freedom, which have been incorporated into ISS)
• For 2006, the costs are estimated at 1.8
  billion. This figure is expected to rise
  gradually each year from 2007 to 2010, to about
  2.3 billion a year
• The total cost to NASA when ISS is (presumably)
  completed in 2010 will be about 38 billion

150

• This, though, does not include space shuttle
  missions to ISS
• The shuttle program costs NASA approximately 5
  billion a year, and all flights now are to ISS
• Adding the shuttle in raises the overall cost of
  ISSs construction to approximately 75-80
  billion for NASA
• (All these numbers are in 2006 dollars)

151

• Russias share of ISS is considerably less, since
  the Soyuz program and unmanned rockets cost far
  less than the space shuttle. Also, most of the
  Russian modules and components for ISS were
  originally part of the Mir/Mir II program
• By 2010, its contribution will be approximately
  25 billion
• ESA, the Japanese Space Agency, and the Canadian
  Space Agency will, by 2010, have contributed
  about 10-12 billion

152

• Also not included in the overall total is the
  cost to maintain, supply, and crew ISS from 2010
  through 2016, when the current international
  agreement will expire.
• Estimates are along the lines of 2 billion a
  year for NASA, and at least 1 billion or more a
  year for everyone else.

153
The Bottom Line

• When it all adds up, what is the overall cost for
  building ISS, everyone and everything
  involved?-approximately 125 billion, of which
  the U.S. will have paid about 90 billion
• What will be the overall cost for the entire
  program through 2016?-probably around 150 billion

154

• Is it worth it?, the critics ask.

155

• Legally, ISS is a joint venture between five
  international space agencies
• NASA
• RKA(Roskosmos)
• ESA(European Space Agency)
• CSA(Canadian Space Agency)
• JAXA(Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency

156

• Also, the Brazilian Space Agency is involved with
  ISS through a separate contract with NASA
• So is The Italian Space Agency, although it is
  also represented through ESA

157
The Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement

• Commonly known as the IGA, and signed in 1998, it
  is like a compact, outlining the relationships
  between and the duties of the nations involved in
  the ISS project.
• 15 nations in all are signatories
• NASA is designated the primary manager of ISS.
  All the other nations and their space agencies
  deal with ISS through it.

158

• The IGA deals with things like
• The responsibilities that each participating
  nation has in the project
• Contractual agreements for hardware and
  construction
• Conditions and terms for payments between nations
  for things like component construction, passenger
  seat purchases, and delivery of supplies to ISS
• A code of conduct, rules, and behavior policies
  for crewmembers aboard ISS

159

• The formal IGA
• agreement

160
Annual Administrator Meetings

• As part of the IGA, the heads of all the space
  agencies involved in ISS meet once a year to
  review progress and discuss future plans

161
Mission Control

• All ISS missions
• are controlled and
• administered at the
• ISS Control Center
• at the Manned
• Spacecraft Center
• in Houston, Texas

162

• The ISS control Center is completely separate
  from the Shuttle Control Center at the same
  facility
• Only once has NASA given up control of ISS. In
  September 2005, when the MSC had to be evacuated
  due to possible flooding from Hurricane Rita, ISS
  control was turned over to the Space Mission
  Center at the Gagarin Space Center in Moscow for
  several days.

163
Where is ISS Now?

• As of Autumn 2006, the International Space
  Station is at this point
• It is approximately 65 complete
• It is once again housing crews of three
• It is almost eight years old, and has made 38,000
  orbits of the Earth

164

• ISS from STS-121, Discovery, in July 2006

165
What About the Future

• In March 2006, NASA announced future plans after
  meeting with the ISS partner nations. Among them
  are
• The crew size will be doubled to six by 2009
• The number of yearly Soyuz flights will be
  doubled to four, also by 2009
• ESAs Columbus module will be launched for
  attachment to ISS as early as 2008
• The Japanese Experiment module will also be
  launched and attached as early as 2008

166

• A Soyuz
• TMA craft
• docked to
• ISS in 2005

167

• The number of shuttle flights need to complete
  ISS has been reduced to 16, with possibly two
  added for supplies and maintenance equipment

168
What still needs to be added

• Node 2-a second module for power, air,and
  water-now scheduled to launched and attached in
  2007
• Columbus-ESAs science laboratory module, now
  scheduled for 2008
• MLM-the Multipurpose Laboratory Module-Russias
  science laboratory module, scheduled to be
  launched by a Proton rocket in late 2007
• JEM-the Japanese Experiment module, also known as
  KIBO. It is a three part module parts 1 and 2
  will be delivered in 2008, part 3 in 2009.

169

• Left-The Columbus Module Right-Node 2

170

• Japans Experiment Module, or KIBO

171
Still to be Decided

• Node 3-a third module for power, air and water.
  It will be launched in 2009, if it is still
  needed. The two components that were to be
  attached to it, the habitation module and the
  crew return vehicle, have both been cancelled.
• The Cupola-a small module with a large
  multi-faceted window, is scheduled to be launched
  with Node 3

172

• The Cupola-designed by the Italian Space
  Agency. It has already been built and is awaiting
  launch.

173

• Two large banks of solar panels on either side of
  the main array also need to be added
• One, the P3/4 truss with its solar panels, was
  added during STS-115s mission in September 2006

174

• ISS taken
• From the
• Space
• Shuttle
• Atlantis
• in September
• 2006

175

• The International Space Station complete-2010

176
Afterwards

• When the IGA expires in 2016, what will happen to
  the International Space Station?

177

• ISS will probably be kept operational as long as
  possible
• NASA wants to use it as a jumping off point for
  manned expeditions to the moon, and possibly to
  Mars as well

178

• An Orion CEV spacecraft approaching ISS around
  2015. NASA illustration

179

• This authors own opinion is that it will be,
  depending on how well it holds up, kept
  operational until at least 2025, and probably
  several years beyond that.
• Whether a new international space station will
  replace it is anyones guess
• The U.S. Congress will most likely not shell out
  the kind of money it took to build ISS

180

• By 2016, the nations that will have their own
  operational space stations will probably include
• China
• India
• The ESA
• Maybe the Russians, again

181

• Possibly Japan and Brazil as well
• In addition, Russia and China just signed an
  agreement for joint manned missions to the Moon
  and maybe Mars. This will have a great deal of
  fallout on future space plane re the United
  States concerning joint plans for space.

182

• So ISSs future is literally and figuratively up
  in the air

183
Finally

• One thing every serious ISS person can agree on

184

• Lance Bass holding a concert aboard ISS would
  have been bad enough
• But

185

• Heaven help us all if Madonna ever gets to go
  there.

186

• The International Space Station would surely be
  doomed after that