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Human Development

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Title: Human Development


1
Chapter 3Human Development
2
Prenatal Development Occurs in Three Stages
  • Zygote stage (lasts two weeks)
  • Embryonic stage (lasts from week 3 to week 8)
  • Fetal stage (lasts from week 9 until birth)

3
Prenatal Development Occurs in Three Stages
  • Zygote stage (lasts two weeks)
  • The sperm fertilizes the egg and forms a new
    cellthe zygote.
  • The zygote travels down the fallopian tubes to
    embed itself in the wall of the uterus.

4
Prenatal Development Occurs in Three Stages
  • Embryonic stage (lasts from week 3 to week 8)
  • When the zygote embeds itself in the uterine
    wall, this living tissue is called an embryo.

5
Prenatal Development Occurs in Three Stages
  • Fetal stage (lasts from week 9 until birth)
  • The last and longest stage in prenatal
    development in which tremendous growth occurs.

6
The Fetus Can Be Harmed by Parental and
Environmental Factors
  • Parental age and maternal nutrition
  • The ages of both the mother and the father can
    affect prenatal development.
  • Harmful environmental agents
  • Teratogens In Greek this word means monster
    makerany disease, drug, or other noxious agent.

7
A Childs Brain Grows at an Immense Rate
  • The brain of an 8-month-old human fetus
  • Has more than twice as many neurons as an adult
    brain (Kolb, 1989).
  • Produces new neurons at a rate of hundreds of
    thousands per minute.
  • Early neural development results in the brains
    weight ballooning.
  • Most added mass is due to the growth of new
    dendrites and the myelin sheath around axons.

8
Neural Network Growth During Infancy
9
Physical Growth and Motor Development Occur
Together
  • During year 1 the body almost triples in weight
    and increases in length by about one-third.
  • In North America, infants
  • Lift their heads at 2 months,
  • Sit up without support at 6 months, and
  • Walk by the end of the first year.

10
Physical Growth and Motor Development Occur
Together
  • Newborns have a number of reflexes.
  • A reflex is an automatic, involuntary response to
    sensory stimuli.

11
Attachment
  • Attachment the strong emotional bond a young
    child forms with its primary caregiver
  • An important ingredient in developing attachment
    is receiving contact comfort.

12
Attachment
  • Attachment bonds develop in stages
  • 36 months Clear preference for primary
    caregivers but do not become upset when separated
    from them
  • 79 months An attachment bond forms toward a
    specific caregiver, and children become extremely
    upset following separation (separation anxiety).
    Children develop a fear of strangers (stranger
    anxiety).

13
Attachment
  • Individual differences in attachment style
    develop as infants interact with their parents
  • Secure attachment belief that one is worthy of
    others love and that people are trustworthy
  • Insecure attachment belief that one is unworthy
    of others love and that people are untrustworthy
  • Securely attached children find it easier to form
    satisfying relationships with others than those
    with insecure attachment.

14
Influences on Attachment Style
  • Parenting style
  • Parents who are responsive to their childrens
    emotional needs and provide sufficient contact
    comfort tend to foster secure attachment.
  • Temperament
  • Infants with an easygoing temperament often
    foster positive parental reactions and these
    children tend to develop a secure attachment,
    while children with a difficult temperament may
    foster negative parental reactions and develop an
    insecure attachment.
  • Culture
  • Collectivist cultures are more likely to foster
    secure attachment than individualist cultures.

15
Possible Causes of Childrens Attachment Style
16
Children Can Handle Parental Separation Under
Certain Conditions
  • Day care and attachment
  • A number of studies have found children who are
    in full-time daycare to tend toward less secure
    attachment.
  • However, meta-analytic research found no overall
    differences in attachment between children who
    stayed home and those who attended day care.

17
Children Can Handle Parental Separation Under
Certain Conditions
  • Divorce is a better predictor of adult function
    than attachment
  • A 23-year longitudinal study of more than 17,000
    British infants found that parental divorce had a
    moderate, long-term negative impact on the mental
    health of about 12 percent of the children after
    they grew up.

18
Self-Concept Is the Primary Social Achievement
of Childhood
  • Self-concept the theory or story a person
    constructs about herself or himself through
    social interaction.
  • Self-awareness a psychological state where an
    individual takes himself or herself as an object
    of attention. Once self-awareness develops at 18
    months, a child begins to develop a self-concept.

19
Self-esteem
  • Self-esteem stability
  • Is relatively low during childhood,
  • Increases throughout adolescence and young
    adulthood, and
  • Declines during midlife and old age.

20
Children Learn the Right Way to Think about
Gender
  • Gender is constantly changing and being
    redefined.
  • Behaviors or interests considered masculine in
    one culture may be defined as feminine in others.

21
Children Learn the Right Way to Think about
Gender
  • Gender identity the knowledge that one is a male
    or a female and the internalization of this fact
    into the self-concept
  • Shortly after children develop self-awareness
    they begin to develop their gender identity.
  • Gender identity is one of the basic elements in
    self-concept.

22
Eriksons Stages
  • Developing a sense of trust versus mistrust is
    the crisis of the first psychosocial stage (birth
    to 1 year)
  • Developing a sense of autonomy versus shame and
    doubt is the crisis of the second psychosocial
    stage (12 years)
  • Developing a sense of initiative versus guilt is
    the crisis of the third psychosocial stage (35
    years)

23
Eriksons Stages
  • Developing a sense of industry vs. inferiority is
    the crisis of the fourth stage (6-12 years)
  • Developing a sense of identity versus role
    confusion is the crisis of the fifth stage (1318
    years)

24
Eriksons Stages
  • Developing a sense of intimacy versus isolation
    is the crisis of the sixth stage (1945 years)
  • Developing a sense of generativity versus
    stagnation is the crisis of the seventh stage
    (4665 years)
  • Developing a sense of integrity versus despair is
    the crisis of the eighth and last stage (66
    years and up)

25
Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development - Four
Stages
  • Jean Piaget contended that cognitive development
    occurs as children organize their structures of
    knowledge to adapt to their environment.
  • A schema is an organized cluster of knowledge
    that people use to understand and interpret
    information.

26
Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development - Four
Stages
  • Acquisition of knowledge occurs through the
    complementary processes of assimilation and
    accommodation.
  • Assimilation the process of absorbing new
    information into existing schemas
  • Accommodation the process of changing existing
    schemas to absorb new information

27
Piagets Stages
  • Sensorimotor stage (birth2 years)
  • experience the world through actions (grasping,
    looking, touching, and sucking)
  • One of the major accomplishments at this stage is
    the development of object permanence.
  • Preoperational stage (26 years)
  • represent things with words and images but
    having no logical reasoning

28
Piagets Stages
  • Concrete operational stage (711 years)
  • think logically about concrete events
    understanding concrete analogies and performing
    arithmetic operations
  • Formal operational stage (12 yearsadulthood)
  • develop abstract reasoning

29
The Three-Mountains Problem
30
Conservation of Liquid, Mass, and NumberLiquid
31
Conservation of Liquid, Mass, and NumberMass
32
Conservation of Liquid, Mass, and NumberNumber
33
Some of Piagets Conclusions Have Been Questioned
  • Development may be less stagelike than he
    proposed.
  • Children may achieve capabilities earlier than he
    thought.
  • All adults may not reach formal operational
    thought.

34
Evaluating Piaget
  • Despite criticisms, most developmental
    psychologists agree that Piaget has generally
    outlined
  • An accurate view of many of the significant
    changes that occur in mental functioning with
    increasing childhood maturation and
  • That children are not passive creatures merely
    being molded by environmental forces, but that
    they are actively involved in their own cognitive
    growth.

35
Vygotskys Theory of Cognitive Development
  • Private speech and internalization
  • According to Vygotsky, learning occurs through
    the social instrument of language.
  • Children listen to people, observe their actions,
    and then internalize this knowledge and make it
    their own through private speech.
  • Zone of proximal development
  • In assessing cognitive development, Vygotsky
    maintained that you need to identify childrens
    zone of proximal development (ZPD).
  • The ZPD is the cognitive range between what a
    child can do on her or his own and what the child
    can do with the help of adults or more-skilled
    children.

36
The Information-Processing Approach
  • The information-processing approach contends that
    a number of important changes occur in childrens
    information-processing system that directly
    affect their ability to learn.
  • The increase in information-processing speed
    appears to be due to the maturation of the brain.

37
Adolescence
  • Adolescence, as a stage in life, is a relatively
    recent phenomenon.
  • Most societies have always viewed young people as
    needing instruction and time to develop.
  • In North American culture, the length of the
    adolescent period has gradually increased over
    the past 40 years, partly due to our societys
    emphasis on attending college.

38
Figure 3-6 Median Age at First Marriage, United
States
Source Fields, Jason. (2001). Americans
families and living arrangements March 2000
(Current Population Reports, P20-537).
Washington, DC U.S. Government Printing Office.
Available online at http//www.census.gov/prod/200
1pubs/p20-537.pdf.
39
Heightened Self-Consciousness Is a Hallmark of
Adolescence
  • imaginary audience belief that other people are
    constantly focused on their thoughts, feelings,
    and behavior.
  • personal fable the tendency for teenagers to
    believe that no one has ever felt or thought as
    they do.
  • Despite these self-focused tendencies, in most
    areas of their lives, adolescents are as well
    adjusted as children and adults.

40
Parenting and Job Responsibilities Often Provide
Conflicts
  • Most adults devote tremendous time and effort to
    pursuing careers and/or raising children. Despite
    a historical shift toward gender equity
  • Women are much more likely than men to receive
    mixed societal messages concerning their ability
    to juggle these dual responsibilities.
  • Womens fear of conflict between occupational and
    family goals is less of an issue among Black
    women than White women.

41
Parenting and Job Responsibilities Often Provide
Conflicts
  • Modern society has failed to adequately encourage
    men to expand their responsibilities within the
    household.
  • When families have actively involved and caring
    fathers, everyone benefits.

42
Certain Intellectual Abilities Increase While
Others Decrease as We Age
  • Despite the physical toll of aging, mental skills
    remain fully functional throughout most of adult
    life.
  • Around the age of 65, some adults experience a
    slight decline in certain intellectual abilities.

43
Certain Intellectual Abilities Increase While
Others Decrease as We Age
  • Older adults reduced neural processing speed
    does not adversely affect their ability to
  • Reason through everyday problems,
  • Understand mathematical concepts, or
  • Learn new information.
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