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Behavioral Theories of Learning

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Title: Behavioral Theories of Learning


1
Lecture 3
  • Behavioral Theories of Learning

2
Chapter 5 Main Contents
  • Part1.What is Learning?
  • Part2.What behavioral learning theories have
    evolved?
  • Pavlov Classical Conditioning
  • Thorndike theories of Learning
  • Skinner Operant Conditioning
  • Principles of behavioral Learning
  • Part3 Bandura Social Learning Theory ??Modeling
    and Observational Learning

3
  • Part 1
  • What is leaning

4
Case Study P137
  • Critical and Creative Thinking
  • What have students learnt in the class?
  • Have they learnt the behaviors the teacher
    expected?
  • Why didnt Ms Esteban accomplish her goal?
  • If you are Ms Esteban,what are you going to
    do?Why?

5
  • Julia Esteban, first-grade teacher at Tanner
    Elementary School, was trying to teach her
    students appropriate classroom behavior.
  • "Children," she said one day, "we are having a
    problem in this class that I'd like to discuss
    with you. Whenever I ask a question, many of you
    shout out your answers instead of raising your
    hand and waiting to be called on. Can anyone tell
    me what you should do when I ask the class a
    question?"
  • Rebecca's hand shot into the air. "I know, I
    know!" she said. "Raise your hand and wait
    quietly!"
  • Ms. Esteban sighed to herself. She tried to
    ignore Rebecca, who was doing exactly what she
    had just been told not to do, but Rebecca was the
    only student with her hand up, and the longer she
    delayed, the more frantically Rebecca waved her
    hand and shouted her answer.
  • "All right, Rebecca. What are you supposed to
    do?"
  • "We're supposed to raise our hands and wait
    quietly for you to call on us." "If you know the
    role, why were you shouting out your answer
    before I called on you?" "I guess I forgot."
  • "All right. Can anyone remind the class of our
    rule about talking out of turn?"
  • Four children raised their hands and shouted
    together..
  • "One at a time!" "Take turns!"
  • "Don't talk when someone else is talking!"
  • Ms. Esteban called for order. "You kids are
    going to drive me crazy!" she said. "Didn't we
    just talk about how to raise your hands and wait
    for me to call on you?"
  • "But Ms. Esteban," said Stephen without even
    raising his hand. "You called on Rebecca and she
    wasn't quiet!"

6
Analysisp138
  • Children are excellent learners.
  • What they learn, however, may not always be
    what we intend to teach. Ms. Esteban is trying to
    teach students how to behave in class, but by
    paying attention to Rebeccas outburst, she is
    actually teaching them the opposite of what she
    intends. Rebecca craves (expects) her teacher's
    attention, so being called on (even in an
    exasperated (angry) tone of voice) rewards her
    for calling out her answer. Not only does Ms.
    Esteban's response increase the chances that
    Rebecca will call out answers again, but Rebecca
    now serves as a model for her classmates' own
    calling out. What Ms.Esteban says is less
    important than her actual response to her
    students' behaviors.

7
What is learning?
  • Brainstorm
  • When we hear the word learning most of us think
    of studying and school. But learning is not limit
    to School.
  • We learning everyday of our lives.
  • Given examples of what are learning and what are
    not learning?

8
A Definition of Learning
  • Learning is usually defined as a change in
    an individual caused by experience

9
Understanding
  • In the broadest sense, learning occurs when
    experience causes a relatively permanent change
    in an individuals knowledge or behavior.
  • Changes simply caused by maturation, such as
    growing taller or turning gray, do not qualify as
    learning.
  • Learning takes place in many ways.

10
Learning takes place in many ways.
  • Video
  • it is intentional, or it is unintentional
  • It happens in human beings or animals
  • It happens in school or out of school
  • learning can be good or can be worse

11
Learning Theories
  • There are two main theories Behavioral learning
    theories and cognitive learning theories.
  • Behavioral learning theories Behavioral learning
    theories are explanations of learning that
    emphasize observable changes in behavior.
  • (Social learning theories focus on the effects of
    thought on action and action on thought.)
  • Cognitive learning theories are explanations of
    learning that focus on mental processes.
  • There are two branches of cognitive learning
    theories cognitive structure learning
    theory(???????),information-processing theory of
    learning(???????)?

12
  • Part2
  • What behavioral learning
  • theories have evolved?

13
Early Explanations of Learning
  • 1. One of the earliest explanations of learning
    come from Aristotle (384-322B.C.)
  • Pavlovs Classical Conditioning
  • Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan
    Pavlov, a Russian Physiologist, in the late 1800s
    and early 1900s

14
  • Aristole (384-322BC)
  • Knowledge acquired through experience.
  • Four Laws of Association
  • Law of similarity(??)
  • Law of Contrast(??)
  • Law of Contiguity(??)
  • Law of Frequency(??)

15
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18
Some important concepts
  • Unconditioned Stimulus
  • A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular
    response.
  • Unconditioned Response
  • A behavior that is prompted atomically by a
    stimulus.
  • Neutral Stimuli
  • Stimuli that have no effect on a particular
    response.
  • Conditioned Stimulus
  • A previously neutral stimulus that evokes a
    particular response after having been paired with
    an unconditioned stimulus.
  • Classical Conditioning
  • The process of repeatedly associating a
    previously neutral(???) stimulus with an
    unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a
    conditioned response.

19
Summary(??)
  • 1. Pavlov's emphasis on observation and careful
    measurement and his systematic exploration of
    several aspects of learning helped to advance the
    scientific study of learning.
  • 2. Pavlov also left other behavioral theorists
    with significant mysteries, such as the process
    by which neutral stimuli take on meaning.
  • 3.Although his findings have few applications to
    classroom instruction, they can help a teacher
    understand many situations, such as when a
    child's anxiety about being among strangers
    gradually develops into a debilitating fear of
    coming to school.

20
Learning Guide for next section
  • Thorndike, Skinner
  • Experiments
  • Conclusions
  • Explanations
  • Applications in Education

21
2. Thorndikes theory of learning
  • American psychologist and educator, born in
    Williamsburg, Massachusetts, and educated at
    Wesleyan, Harvard, and Columbia universities.
    Thorndike joined the psychology faculty at
    Teachers College of Columbia University in
    1899, where he served as adjunct professor of
    educational psychology from 1901 to 1904 and as
    professor of psychology from 1904 until his
    retirement in 1940. From 1922 to 1940 he also
    was director of the psychology division of the
    Institute of Educational Research at Teachers
    College.

22
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
  • Edward Thorndike, an American psychologist
    played major roles in developing learning
    theories. His early work involved cats that he
    placed in problem boxes.
  • By using trial-and-error experiments with
    animals, Thorndike formulated his so-called law
    of effectthe more satisfying the result of a
    particular action, the better that action is
    learnedand applied it to the development of
    special teaching techniques for use in the
    classroom. He is particularly known for his
    construction of various intelligence and aptitude
    tests and for his repudiation of the belief that
    such primarily intellectual subjects as languages
    and mathematics discipline the mind.

23
Edward
Thorndike played major roles in developing
learning theories. His early work involved cats
that he placed in problem boxes.
24
Experiments description
  • Thorndikes early work involved cats that he
    placed in problem boxes. To escape from the box
    and reach food outside, the cats had to pull out
    a bolt(??) or perform some other task they had
    to act on their environment. During the
    frenzied(???,???) movements that followed the
    closing of the box, the cats eventually made the
    correct movement to escape, usually by accident.
    After repeating the process many times, the cats
    learned to make the correct response almost
    immediately

25
Thorndike's learning theory can be summarized as
follows
  • 1
  • The law of effect(???) - responses followed by a
    reward will strengthen the response
  • The law of readiness (???)- chaining a discrete
    responses to achieve a goal
  • The law of exercise (???)- associations are
    strengthened with practice, weakened without it,
    and can be diminished with failure or punishment.

26
For these experiments
  • 2
  • Thorndike explained what was learning . He viewed
    that learning was the linkage between stimulus
    and response. The learning occurred when stimuli
    prompt response (stimuli-response theory ,S-R
    theory).

27
3. Skinners Operant Conditioning
  • American psychologist
  • B. F.Skinner became famous for his
    pioneering research on learning and behavior.
    During his 60-year career, Skinner discovered
    important principles of operant conditioning, a
    type of learning that involves
    reinforcement and punishment. A strict
    behaviorist, Skinner believed that operant
    conditioning could explain even the most complex
    of human behaviors.

28
Skinners experiments
  • Skinner is famous for his development and use of
    a device(??) that is commonly referred to as the
    Skinner box. Skinner boxes contain a very simple
    apparatus(??,??) for studying the behavior of
    animals, usually rats and pigeons.
  • A Skinner box for rats would consist of a bar
    that is easy for the rat to press, a food
    dispenser(???) that could give the rat a
    pellet(??) of food, and a water dispenser. The
    rat could not see or hear anything outside of the
    box, so all stimuli would be controlled by the
    experimenter.

29
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30
Based on Skinners experiment
  • He established the operant conditioning.
  • Operant Conditioning is the use of pleasant or
    unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence
    of behavior.

31
Creative Thinking and Discuss in groups
  • Compare the contributions of Pavlov, Thorndike
    and Skinner s view of learning. What are the
    difference among them?

32
  • CONSEQUENCE EFFECT
  • Behaviors Reinforcer Strengthened or
    repeated behavior

33
4. Principles of behavioral Learning
  • consequences(??),
  • reinforcers(???),
  • punishers(??),
  • immediacy of consequences(??????),
  • shaping(??),
  • extinction(??),
  • schedules of reinforcement(?????),
  • maintenance(??),
  • and the role of antecedents(???????).

34
consequences(??)
  • The role of Consequences
  • behavior changes according to its immediate
    consequences. Pleasurable consequences strengthen
    behavior unpleasant consequences weaken it.
  • Types of Consequences
  • Pleasurable consequences and Unpleasant
    consequences

35
reinforcers(???)
  • positive reinforer and negative reinforcer
  • Primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers
  • Intrinsic(???) and Extrinsic(???) reinforcers

36
Ways of reinforcer
  • general principle of reinforcer
  • Ways
  • 1. Self-reinforcement
  • 2. Praise
  • 3. Attention
  • 4. Grades and recognition
  • 5. Home-based reinforcement
  • 6. Activity reinforcers.
  • 7. Tangible(???,???) reinforcers

37
Theory into practice
  • 1. Application of reinforcers------Premack
    Principle
  • 2.Classroom uses of reinforcement
  • (1)Decide what behaviors you want from students,
    and reinforce these behaviors when they occur.
  • (2)Tell students what behaviors you want when
    they exhibit the desired behaviors and you
    reinforce them, tell them why.
  • (3) Reinforce appropriate behavior as soon as
    possible after it occurs.
  • (4)to use the least elaborate(?????,) or
    tangible(???) reinforcer

38
Punishers
  • Unpleasant Consequences that weaken behavior are
    called punishers.
  • (Thinking if an unpleasant consequence cant
    weeken behavior ,is it a punisher?)

39
Punishers
  • Punishment can take two primary forms
  • PRESENTATION PUNISHMENT(????)
  • REMOVAL PUNISHMENT(?????)

40
Immediacy of Consequences
  • Consequences that follow behaviors closely in
    time affect behavior far more than delayed
    consequences do.

41
Shaping
  • Shaping is an important tool in classroom
    instruction ?
  • What is Shaping???
  • Case study

42
  • Example on page151 ,4thP
  • we want students to be able to write paragraphs
    with a topic sentence, three supporting details,
    and a concluding sentence. This task has many
    parts being able to recognize and then produce
    topic sentences, supporting details, and
    concluding sentences being able to write
    complete sentences using capitalization,
    punctuation, and grammar correctly and being
    able to spell. If a teacher taught a lesson on
    all these skills, asked students to write
    paragraphs, and then scored them on content,
    grammar, punctuation, and spelling, most students
    would fail and would probably learn little from
    the exercise. Instead, the teacher might teach
    the skills step by step, gradually shaping the
    final skill. Students might be taught how to
    write first topic sentences, then supporting
    details, then concluding sentences. Early on,
    they might be held responsible only for paragraph
    content. Later, the requirement for reinforcement
    might be increased to include grammar and
    punctuation. Finally, spelling might be added as
    a criterion for success. At each stage, students
    would have a good chance to be reinforced,
    because the criterion for reinforcement would be
    within their grasp. The principle here is that
    students should be reinforced for behaviors that
    are within their current capabilities but that
    also stretch them toward new skills.

43
Shaping(??)
  • When teachers guide students toward goals by
    reinforcing the many steps that lead to success,
    they are using a technique called shaping.

44
Extinction
  • The weakening and eventual elimination of a
    learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn is
    called extinction.
  • (give some examples from your experience).

45
Schedules of Reinforcement
  • P155
  • This term refers to the frequency with which
    reinforcers are given, the amount of time that
    elapses(??,??) between opportunities for
    reinforcement, and the predictability of
    reinforcement(??????????????????????????????????).

46
Schedules of Reinforcement
47
Schedules of Reinforcement
  • Continuous Reinforcement Schedule Presenting a
    reinforce after every appropriate response.
  • Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule Presenting a
    reinforcer after some but not all responses.
  • Interval Schedule Reinforcement based on the
    length of time between refnforcers
  • Ratio Schedule Reinforcement based on the
    number responses between reinforcers
  • Fixed-interval Schedule Reinforcement
    Schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded
    following a constant amount of time
  • Variable-interval Schedule Reinforcement
    Schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded
    following an unpredictable amount of time.
  • Fixed- Ratio Schedule Reinforcement Schedule
    in which desired behavior is rewarded following a
    fixed number of behaviors.
  • Variable-Ratio Schedule Reinforcement schedule
    in which desired behavior is rewarded following
    an unpredictable number of behaviors

48
Self learning
  • SCHEDULE DEFINITION EXAMPLE RESPONSE
    PATTERN

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50
Maintenance(??)
  • Maintenance means the continuation of behavior.

51
Antecedents (????)and Behavior Change
  • We have seen that the consequences of behavior
    strongly influence behavior. Yet it is not only
    what follows a behavior that has influence.
  • The stimuli that precede a behavior also play an
    important role.

52
Antecedents (????)and Behavior Change
  • CUEING
  • Cueing, by definition, is the act of providing
    an antecedent stimulus just before a particular
    behavior is to take place.
  • The cues must be discriminative .So we can
    provide an additional cue called prompt .

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54
  • Part3
  • Bandura Social Learning Theory ---Modeling
    and Observational Learning

55
Main contents of Social Learning Theory
  • Modeling and Observational Learning(???????)
  • VICARIOUS LEARNING(?????)
  • SELF REGULATED LEARNING(??????
  • SELF-REINFORCEMENT(????)

56
The experiments
  • One of the classic experiments in social learning
    theory is a study done by Bandura (1965).
    Children were shown one of three films. In all
    three, an adult modeled aggressive behavior. In
    one film the model was severely punished. In
    another the model was praised and given
    treats(??). In a third the model was given no
    consequences. After viewing one of the films, the
    children were observed playing with toys. The
    children who had seen the model punished engaged
    in significantly fewer aggressive acts in their
    own play than did the children who had seen the
    model rewarded or had viewed the no-consequences
    film.

57
Modeling and Observational Learning
  • Brain storming
  • What kinds of behaviors are learnt without the
    effects of consequences?

58
four phases of observational learning
  • Attentional Phase
  • Retention Phase
  • Reproduction Phase
  • motivational phase

59
VICARIOUS LEARNING(?????)
  • The experiments
  • One of the classic experiments in social
    learning theory is a study done by Bandura
    (1965). Children were shown one of three films.
    In all three, an adult modeled aggressive
    behavior. In one film the model was severely
    punished. In another the model was praised and
    given treats(??) In a third the model was given
    no consequences. After viewing one of the films,
    the children were observed playing with toys. The
    children who had seen the model punished engaged
    in significantly fewer aggressive acts in their
    own play than did the children who had seen the
    model rewarded or had viewed the noconsequences
    film.

60
SELF REGULATED LEARNING(??????)
  • Meichenbaum's Model of Self-Regulated
    Learning(????????)

61
Meichenbaum's Model of Self-Regulated
Learning(????????)
  • 1. An adult model performs a task while talking
    to self out loud (cognitive modeling).
  • 2. The child performs the same task under the
    direction of the model's instructions
    (overt(???,???), external guidance).
  • 3. The child performs the task while instructing
    self aloud (overt self-guidance).
  • 4. The child whispers the instructions to self
    as he or she goes through the task (faded, overt
    self-guidance).
  • 5. The child performs the task while guiding his
    or her performance via private speech (covert
    self-instruction). (p. 32)

62
Example of Self-Regulated Learning
  • TASK COMPLETION FORM
  • Located material on Martin Luther King Jr.
    in the library
  • Read and took notes on material
  • Wrote first draft of report
  • Checked draft for sense
  • Checked draft for mechanics
  • Spelling
  • Grammar
  • Punctuation
  • Composed typed or neatly handwritten final
    draft

63
Compare to Vygotskian approach
  • Both approaches emphasize modeling private speech
    and gradually moving from teacher-controlled to
    student-controlled behaviors

64
Advantage of this strategy
  • breaking down a complex task into smaller pieces
    encourages students to feel that they are making
    progress toward their larger goal.
  • checking off each step allows them to give
    themselves a mental pat on the back that
    reinforces their efforts (Manning Payne, 1996).

65
SELF-REINFORCEMENT(????)
  • P120
  • Information about ones own behavior has often
    been found to change behavior, even when that
    information is self-provided.

66
Strengths and Limitations of Behavioral Learning
Theories
  • The basic principles of behavioral learning
    theories are as firmly established as any in
    psychology and have been demonstrated under many
    different conditions. These principles are useful
    for explaining much of human behavior they are
    even more useful in changing behavior.
  • It is important to recognize, however, that
    behavioral learning theories are limited in
    scope(??). With the exception of social learning
    theorists, behavioral learning theorists focus
    almost exclusively on observable behavior
  • Less visible learning processes, such as concept
    formation, learning from text, problem solving,
    and thinking, are difficult to observe directly
    and have therefore been studied less often by
    behavioral learning theorists. These processes
    fall more into the domain of cognitive learning,
  • Social learning theory, which is a direct
    outgrowth of behavioral learning theories, helps
    to bridge the gap between the behavioral and
    cognitive perspectives.

67
  • The end of Chapter 3
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