Research Methods in SpeechLanguage Pathology

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Research Methods in Speech-Language Pathology
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I. Overview of the Research Process

• The word research has its etymological roots in
  Middle French recerche, to investigate
  thoroughly, and in Old French, recerchier (re-
  cerchier) to search.
• Research, as a form of inquiry, deals with the
  processes underlying the asking and answering of
  questions.

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I. Overview of the Research Process

• The set of rules for asking and answering
  questions, and for evaluating answer to questions
  constitutes the scientific method (Silverman,
  1998).
• The scientific method can be used for describing
  events, explaining events, and predicting events.

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A. Scientific Method Evidence

• The scientific method serves as a research plan.
• It is a set of procedures aimed at the control
  and measurement of the influence of one variable
  upon another while extraneous influences.
• Most research plans evolve based on the following
  factors

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A. Scientific Method Evidence

• Observation of a problem that leads to a
  question
• Development of a problem statement in the form of
  a testable hypothesis
• Use of appropriate methods for testing the
  hypothesis
• Statement and interpretation of results and
• Discussion and evaluation of the results.

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A. Scientific Method Evidence

• In order to practice efficiently and effectively,
  SLPs need to be armed with a battery of
  information or evidence to support their practice
  (Elliott, 2004).
• Evidence may originate from a numerous and
  diverse sources, including both systematic (e.g.,
  scientific studies) and unsystematic observations
  (e.g., clinical observation).

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A. Scientific Method Evidence

• Evidence-based practice requires SLPs to
  integrate their individual clinical expertise
  with the best available evidence from systematic
  research to demonstrate that what they do works.
• Like the scientific method, evidenced-based
  practice involves the following steps

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A. Scientific Method Evidence

• Convert a clinical need into an answerable
  question
• Search for and find the best evidence to answer
  the question
• Critically evaluate the evidence you find for its
  validity, strength, and applicability to the
  individual client
• Apply the results of the search and appraisal to
  clinical practice and
• Evaluate or audit your performance.

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Empirical Research

• Empirical research is at the core of many fields
  of study.
• Empirical research is conducted through
  questioning, observing, experimenting, and
  eliciting behavior.
• It often defines relationships, demonstrates
  cause and effect and sparks our own minds to
  begin thinking of other possibilities to be
  tested and studied.

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1. Classifying Designs by Purpose

• Empirical research designs are often classified
  by their purpose, or by the knowledge that such
  designs will produce.
• The scheme most widely used to differentiate
  purpose is that of exploratory, descriptive, and
  explanatory research.

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a. Exploratory (Preliminary) Research

• Exploratory research encompasses studies
  conducted in natural settings with the explicit
  purpose of discovering phenomena, variables,
  theories, or a combination thereof.
• Exploratory studies are characterized by no
  active manipulation or alterations of the
  research context or its conditions by the
  researcher.
• It often helps determine the best research
  design, data collection method and selection of
  subjects, and sometimes it even concludes that
  the problem does not exist!

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b. Descriptive Research

• Descriptive or ethnographic research involves the
  study of human behavior through the description
  or reconstruction of events that are observed as
  they naturally occur.
• The studys research hypotheses do not make
  statements of comparison regarding the
  information collected.

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b. Descriptive Research

• Data is merely described and no inferences to a
  larger group or population can be derived from
  the analysis.
• Information is explained in relationship to the
  individual studied.
• Categories of analysis are generated and the
  relationship between the categories are
  explained.

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1) Data Collection

• Descriptive research involves inductive,
  generative, constructive, and subjective
  processing of data gathering and analysis.
• Ethnographers tend to work with data that are not
  enumerative or standardized.
• As a form of inquiry, ethnography employs two
  basic principles
• That the investigator collecting the information
  be on the scene as a participant and observer
  and
• That the description of the activity attend to
  meaning that the participants themselves give to
  what is going on.

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1) Data Collection

• The primarily means of data collection include
• participant observation
• interview and
• non-participant observation.
• Ethnographers are free to modify or change
  methodology at any time throughout the data
  collection phase of the research.

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2) Data Analysis

• Ethnographers analyze data throughout the study,
  and again after the data collection process has
  been completed.
• An ethnographic account of something is a thick
  description.
• Thick description is a decoding process in which
  the researcher views the details of the event as
  elements of a complex whole.
• Ethnographic methodology treats an observed event
  holistically as that event relates to all
  other events.

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2) Data Analysis

• After the ethnographers categorize the data, a
  comparative process of looking for patterns in
  the data is undertaken.
• When the researcher feels that s/he has been able
  to categorize all the significant data and
  explain the patterns of relationship that exist
  between the categories, the analysis would be
  complete.

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c. Explanatory Research

• Explanatory research, also called experimental
  research, is designed to reveal causal
  relationships and predict outcomes.
• Explanatory studies are founded on an accepted
  theoretical framework of reference and seek to
  support theory through hypothesis testing and
  prediction.
• Explanatory studies rely only on measurement and
  statistical analysis of quantitative data.

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c. Explanatory Research

• Experimental research is best characterized as
  the precise analysis of the effects of a
  treatment on a specific behavior.
• It essentially involves comparisons of groups or
  individuals.
• Participants in the research are grouped together
  and treated according to a pre-established
  design.
• In other words, a treatment is presented within a
  specific context and behavior change is measured.

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c. Explanatory Research

• Experimental research is concerned with the
  relationships among variables (Schiavetti Metz,
  1997).
• Variables are measurable quantities that change
  under different circumstances rather than remain
  constant.
• Variables can be categorized as independent and
  dependent.

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1) Independent vs. Dependent Variables

• The behavior that the experimenter controls is
  typically referred to as the independent
  variable.
• Independent variables can be thought of as
  conditions that cause changes in behavior.
• The behavior that the experimenter measures is
  referred to as the dependent variable.
• Dependent variables can be seen as the behavior
  that is changed.

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1) Independent vs. Dependent Variables

• The distinction between independent and dependent
  variables is really a distinction based on the
  use of variables rather than some inherent
  property of a variable.

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2) Active vs. Attribute Variables

• A variable that can be manipulated is an active
  variable.
• The independent variable in an experiment is an
  active variable.
• It can be manipulated in some way by the
  experimenter to see what effect it has on a
  dependent variable..

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2) Active vs. Attribute Variables

• A variable that cannot be manipulated by a
  researcher is an attribute variable.
• Subject characteristics, or attributes of the
  subjects, cannot be manipulated.
• The independent variable in descriptive research
  is an attribute and cannot be manipulated by the
  researcher to see what effect it has on the
  dependent variable.

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3) Continuous and Categorical Variables

• A continuous variable is one that may be measured
  along some continuum or dimension that reflects
  at least the rank ordering of variable values.
• A categorical variable cannot be measured and can
  only be categorized or name.
• Continuous and categorical variables are
  displayed differently graphically.

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3) Continuous and Categorical Variables

• Change in a dependent variable as a function of
  changes in a continuous variable are commonly
  displayed in a line graph.

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3) Continuous and Categorical Variables

• Change in a dependent variable as a function of
  change in a categorical variable are customarily
  displayed in a bar graph.

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2. Classifying Designs by Structure

• Research designs can be classified by the way in
  which data gathering and analysis is organized
  and structured.
• The first classification is based on the
  assumption of the experimental paradigm.
• Designs are recognized as either those that are
  experimental, those that are somewhat
  experimental but are missing something
  (quasi-experimental), or those that are missing
  the essential elements of experimental design
  (non-experimental).

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2. Classifying Designs by Structure

• The second structural approach is based on the
  nature of the data collected and the type of
  analysis conducted.
• In this scheme, studies are classified as either
  qualitative or quantitative in their
  structure those that use numerical data and
  statistical analysis and those that rely on
  narrative and qualitative-type analysis.

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a. Experimental Model

• Experimental research is the appropriate method
  for investigating cause-and-effect relationships
  among variables.
• True experimental designs can be distinguished
  from all others on the basis of three main
  factors

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a. Experimental Model

• Subjects are randomly assigned to at least two or
  more groups
• Some type of active manipulation is performed
  and
• One group of subjects (experimental group) is
  then compared with another non-manipulated group
  (control group) (Maxwell Satake,1997).

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a. Experimental Model

• Typically, quantitative measurements and methods
  of data analysis are used to compare the
  experimental and control groups.
• The results are presented as quantities or
  numbers (e.g., statistics).
• Based on the results, the researcher is able to
  support or refute the original hypothesis.
• It is a deductive, verificative, enumerative, and
  objective process.

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b. Quasi-Experimental Model

• Quasi-experimental research designs are generally
  selected when true experimentation is impractical
  or impossible to perform.
• Typically, subjects are assigned to groups on the
  basis of preexisting conditions or circumstances.

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b. Quasi-Experimental Model

• To estimate treatment effectiveness, a
  constructed control group must be established
  for comparison with a treated group of subjects.
• The two groups would be matched on a number of
  variables prior to treatment.
• Quasi-experimental methods often necessitate the
  use of more control procedures.

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c. Nonexperimental Model

• Nonexperimental designs are those in which the
  three criteria for true experimentation do not
  exist.
• In such research, there is no attempt to achieve
  randomization, nor is any purposeful effort made
  to manipulate the variables under study.
• Instead, the researcher sets out to test a
  concept or construct or the relationships among
  constructs.

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c. Nonexperimental Model

• Nonexperimental designs examine naturally
  occurring phenomena and describe or examine
  relationships.
• Any manipulation of variables is done post hoc
  through statistical analysis.
• In health and human services, the three most
  common types of nonexperimental research include
  surveys, passive observation, and ex post facto
  designs.

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1) Survey

• Survey designs are used primarily to measure
  characteristics of a population.
• Typically surveys are conducted with large
  samples.
• There is relatively minimal expenditure and
  numerous variables can be measured.
• Statistical manipulation during the data analysis
  stage can permit multiple uses of the data set.

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2) Passive Observation

• Passive observation designs are used to examine
  phenomena as they naturally occur and to discern
  the relationship between two or more variables.
• These designs are often referred to as
  correlational designs.

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3) Ex Post Facto

• Ex post facto designs are a type of passive
  observation literally performed after the fact.
• The phenomena of interest have already occurred
  and cannot be manipulated in any way.

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d. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methods

• Methods of empirical research can be quantitative
  or qualitative.
• Examples of quantitative methods accepted in the
  social sciences include survey methods and
  experimental research.
• With quantitative research, the researcher
  explores relationships using numeric data.
• Statistical methods are used to analyze the data
  and results are summarized in impersonal,
  objective reports.

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d. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methods

• Qualitative research methods were developed in
  the social sciences to enable researchers to
  study social and cultural phenomena
• With qualitative research, the researcher
  explores relationships using textual, rather than
  numerical data.
• Case study, observation, and ethnography are
  considered forms of qualitative research.

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3. Classifying Designs by Element of Time

• Time is an important factor in the design and
  execution of research along both the experimental
  and naturalistic continua.
• There are two basic design classifications by
  time retrospective and prospective research.

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a. Retrospective Research

• Retrospective research examines phenomena after
  the fact of after the phenomena have occurred.
• Examples of retrospective experimental-type
  designs include those that use chart extraction
  and are classified as passive observation or
  correlational.
• A retrospective approach is useful when a
  reasonable data set, such as medical records, is
  available, if the researcher has limited time and
  funding resources, and if random assignment is
  not appropriate.

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a. Retrospective Research

• Along the naturalistic design continuum, the life
  history approach is an example of a retrospective
  strategy.
• This approach to qualitative research uses the
  interview or informant technique to gather
  information or reminiscences about personal
  experiences, feelings, and events.

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b. Prospective Research

• In a prospective approach, the purpose is to
  describe phenomena, search for cause and effect
  relationships, or examine change in the present
  or as the event unfolds over time.
• There are two basic types of prospective designs
  cross-sectional and longitudinal.

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1). Cross-sectional Study

• In a cross-sectional study design, the researcher
  examines a phenomenon at one point in time.
• There is only one single time frame in which data
  are collected.

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2). Longitudinal Studies

• Longitudinal studies involve data collection over
  extended periods of time.
• Three types of longitudinal studies are
  described trend, cohort, and panel studies.

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a). Trend Studies

• Trend studies involve examining a general
  population over time to see changes or trends
  that emerge as a consequence of time.

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b). Cohort Studies

• Cohort studies involve examining a specific group
  or one particular generational grouping as they
  change over time.
• A cohort, or one particular generational
  grouping, would be followed over time.

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c). Panel Studies

• Panel studies are another longitudinal design
  strategy.
• Similar to a cohort design, the same set of
  people are studied over time.

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4. Classifying Designs by Context

• Studies can also be classified by the context in
  which they are conducted.
• The three major categories of study in this
  classification approach are field, laboratory,
  and clinical studies.
• Field studies refer to research conducted in
  natural settings, whereas laboratory studies are
  implemented in controlled environments.

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4. Classifying Designs by Context

• In health care research, clinical research refers
  to the investigation of human experience within
  the context of health care institutions.
• Clinical research may be based in the field or
  the laboratory depending upon the nature of the
  research query.
• Classifying design by context facilitates an
  understanding of how the setting establishes the
  parameters for a design structure.

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C. Scientific Reporting

• Clear communication is the primary objective of
  scientific reporting.
• The rules provided in the Publication Manual of
  the American Psychological Association are drawn
  from an extensive body of psychological
  literature, from editors and authors experienced
  in psychological writing and from authorities on
  publication practices.
• APA is the editorial style utilized in the
  journals of our discipline.

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1. Reports of Empirical Studies

• Reports of empirical studies are reports of
  original research.
• They typically consist of distinct sections that
  reflect the sequential stages of the research
  process
• the introduction
• the method
• the results and
• discussion.

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2. Review Articles

• Review articles, including meta-analyses, are
  critical evaluations of material that has already
  been published.
• Review articles serve as tutorials.
• The components of a review article, unlike the
  sections of reports of empirical studies, are
  arranged by relationship rather than by
  chronology.

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3. Theoretical Articles

• Theoretical articles are papers in which the
  author draws upon existing research literature to
  advance theory in any area of the discipline.
• Unlike empirical reports, theoretical reports
  only present empirical information when it
  affects theoretical issues.
• The sections of theoretical articles are ordered
  by relationship rather than chronology.

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II. Research Development

• Where does a researcher start?
• How does one arrive at a feasible research topic?
• Three channels exist for developing preliminary
  ideas replication, advisor recommendation, and
  original idea.

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Project Development 1. Idea Sources Replication

• A replication involves finding a research study
  and repeating it in exactly the same way.
• Replication is one way of re-testing the previous
  conclusions of a study done a few years earlier.
• Replication is convenient in the fact that all
  the design questions and various statistical
  parameter issues are already decided upon.

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Project Development 1. Idea Sources Replication

• The research simply collects new data and
  compares new findings with old results.
• To find a study to replicate, review the
  literature on a broad subject matter area of
  interest.
• Decide on a specific study whose findings
  intrigue you and obtain a copy of the work.
• Design new research identical to it.
• Collect, analyze, and compare findings and
  conclusions to the previous work.

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Project Development 1. Idea Sources Advisor Rx

• This is a very common approach when deciding upon
  a masters thesis or a doctoral dissertation.
• Obviously, if one designs and completes the
  research in a way in which the advisor suggests
  originally, there will be little remaining to be
  scrutinized by committee members.
• However, you should sincerely like the advisors
  suggestion in the first place, because in the
  final analysis, the research will be attributed
  to you.

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Project Development 1. Idea Sources Original
Idea

• Original ideas can be generated in a several of
  ways
• By doing literature reviews on a topic of general
  interest
• By doing literature reviews with a replication
  idea in mind
• By doing literature review with a specific
  population in mind.

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Project Development 2. Pro Con Analysis

• To determine the feasibility of each of your
  ideas, you want to a pro and con analysis.
• Taking each preliminary idea one at a time, write
  out every possible element that would make this
  idea a good one or a bad one to study.
• Be honest about your research considerations.

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Project Development 2. Pro Con Analysis

• Try to make the pros and cons as specific as
  possible.
• Have your advisor look over your worksheet and
  get his/her objective suggestions.

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Project Development 3. Final Workable Idea

• After discussion with your advisor and/or faculty
  mentor, the best final workable idea should
  emerge.
• Practice explaining your proposed research effort
  to friends and family as a final test that your
  idea is workable.

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B. Literature Review

• The purpose of the lit review is to set the
  foundation for the studys hypotheses.
• The lit review allows a reader to better
  understand the research problem in terms of
  historical background, theoretical framework, and
  current research developments or trends.

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Literature Review1. Data Sources

• As the first step in reviewing the literature,
  obtain titles of journals pertinent to the
  research topic.
• Specific search engines, such as EBSCO Host and
  the Directory of Open Access Journals, can be
  helpful in helping you locating relevant journal
  listings.
• After acquiring the listing of relevant journal
  titles proceed to a review of computer generated
  references, with systems such as ComDisDome,
  ERIC, PubMed, etc.

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Literature Review1. Data Sources

• http//www.comdisdome.com/dome/index.jsp
• Once you have found some promising articles,
  verify that your library has the journal, or that
  the full-text is accessible.
• If the full-text is not accessible, except by
  subscription, you will want to request a copy of
  the article by interlibrary loan.

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Literature Review1. Data Sources

• You can do this on-line from Baron-Forness
  library link http//www.edinboro.edu/cwis/library
  /illoan/illartcle.htm
• Some information, such as that contained in
  masters theses or doctoral dissertations are
  only available through purchase of
  microfiche/microfilm.
• Others may be available through inter-library
  loan.

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Literature Review2. Content and Organization

• Every literature requires a good organizational
  system.
• Sometimes, the old fashion 3 x 5 card makes the
  most sense, because these can be color coded.
• With computer application, you can save
  information into separate files for historical
  information, theoretical information, current
  research (within 10 years), and past research
  (older than 10 years).
• Example

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Literature Review2. Content and Organization

• Once you have reviewed the literature and created
  an annotated bibliography of all your articles,
  you want to begin organize the information in the
  way in which it might unfold in the paper.
• It is generally a good idea to review historical
  background only enough as is needed to set the
  stage for the current concern.

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C. Hypothesis Formulation

• In the behavioral sciences, we conduct research
  in order to test hypotheses which we derive from
  our theories of behavior.
• Having stated a specific hypothesis, we collect
  data which should enable us to make a decision
  concerning the hypothesis.
• Our decision may lead us to retain, revise, or
  reject the hypothesis and the theory that was its
  source.

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Hypothesis Formulation1. Types of Hypotheses

• The null hypothesis (H0) is simply the hypothesis
  of no difference, no relationship, or no
  effect.
• It is simply the scientifically stated phrase
  that can be statistically tested.
• It is usually formulated for the express purpose
  of being rejected.
• If it is rejected, the alternative hypothesis
  (H1) is supported

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Hypothesis Formulation1. Types of Hypotheses

• The research hypothesis is the prediction derived
  from the theory under consideration.
• The research hypothesis is that the groups
  differ.
• Confirmation of that prediction would lend
  support to the theory from which it was derived.
• To test the research hypothesis, we have to state
  it in its operational form, the alternative
  hypothesis (H1) .

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Hypothesis Formulation1. Types of Hypotheses

• The alternative hypothesis is the operational
  statement of the experimenters research
  hypothesis.
• If the research hypothesis simply states that two
  groups will differ with respect to means, than
  the alternative hypothesis would state that the
  means of the two group populations is unequal.

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Hypothesis Formulation1. Types of Hypotheses

• But if the theory predicts the direction of the
  differences, that is that one specified group
  will have a larger mean than the other, the H1
  may be that the mean for group 1 is greater than
  the mean for group 2.
• If the data permits us to reject H0, then we
  would accept H1 since the data support the
  research hypothesis and its underlying theory.

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Hypothesis Formulation2. Directionality of
Hypotheses

• Research hypotheses can be either directional
  (one-tailed)
• or non-directional (two-tailed).

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Hypothesis Formulation2. Directionality of
Hypotheses

• In a directional research hypothesis, not only is
  a difference or relationships expected, it is
  expected in a definite direction.
• In a non-directional hypothesis, a difference or
  relationship is expected, but no direction of
  difference is established.
• The null hypothesis is immune from this entire
  directionality issue since it is always a
  statement of no difference or no relationship.

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Hypothesis Formulation2. Directionality of
Hypotheses

• On the document-camera is Table 3.1
• The null and the research hypotheses are stated.
• Now you can practice with stating both null and
  research hypotheses using the language on
  Worksheet 3.1A.

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Hypothesis Formulation2. Directionality of
Hypotheses

• There are four critical hypothesis development
  rules to follow in creating research hypotheses
• The hypothesis should reflect the essence of the
  study. It should not stray from the major issue
  and thrust of your research topic.
• The hypothesis must be written clearly, without
  ambiguity it should not be a compound thought.

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Hypothesis Formulation2. Directionality of
Hypotheses

• The hypothesis in a scientific research endeavor
  must be testable by quantitative means. Design
  the study so that the appropriate scores or
  values are available for quantifying the
  information needed relative to testing each null
  hypothesis.
• A statistical test should assess only one null
  hypothesis.
• All statistical measures yield a probability or
  significance value.

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Hypothesis Formulation2. Directionality of
Hypotheses

• This value always relates to the hypothesis of no
  difference or no relationshipthe H0.
• More specifically, the significance value
  associated with any statistical test actually
  represents the odds of the results being due only
  to chance and not due to any real differences or
  relationships found in the data.
• The significance value obtained answers the
  questions what are the chances that the null
  hypothesis is true?

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Hypothesis Formulation2. Directionality of
Hypotheses

• At what level is the significance value
  considered a significant finding in testing
  null hypotheses?
• The level selected as the statistical testing
  criteria or cut-off is termed the alpha level
  (?).
• The .05 and .01 ? are by far the most
  traditionally accepted in most research work.
• The alpha level represents the percentage of
  chance of being wrong, if null is rejected.

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III. Research Writing Formats

• The research prospectus is a common format
  utilized when proposing research for thesis,
  dissertation, and/or grant funding.
• It is essentially an argument in favor of taking
  some sort of research action.
• It is a blueprint detailing instructions for
  conducting a research study.

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A. Prospectus

• In other words, a prospectus is a draft research
  proposal which provides an overview of relevant
  background information, the aims of the study,
  methods of data-collection and analysis, and an
  illustrative bibliography.
• Common parts of a research prospectus include the
  introduction, the review of the literature, and
  the research methodology for sampling, data
  collection, analysis, and interpretation.

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B. Grant Proposal

• A grant proposal is a written description of a
  research project you wish to have financially
  supported.
• Successful grant writing involves the
  coordination of several activities, including
  planning, searching for data and resources,
  writing and packaging a proposal, submitting a
  proposal to a funder, and follow-up.

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B. Grant Proposal

• Crafting a well done grant proposal takes time.
• Structure, attention to specifications, concise
  persuasive writing, and a reasonable budget are
  the critical elements of grant proposal writing.
• Successful grant proposals are not commonly
  written the evening before the submission
  deadline.

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B. Grant Proposal

• There is no one standard form of a grant
  proposal.
• Each grant-making agency may require different
  information, adding more information in one
  element of the proposal or subtracting an amount
  of information supplied in another.
• Some grant making institutions may require a
  large amount of material whereas another
  grant-maker may require only a few pages of
  information.

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B. Grant Proposal

• If the grant-making agency supplies a set of
  guidelines for the grant proposal, follow them.
• The standard grant proposal elements include the
  narrative, budget, appendix of support material,
  and authorized signature.
• Sometimes proposal applications require abstracts
  or summaries, an explanation of budget items, and
  certifications.

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B. Grant Proposal

• Narratives typically describe
• Statement of need-- purpose, goals, measurable
  objectives, and a compelling, logical reason why
  the proposal should be supported.
• Approach-- method and process of accomplishing
  goals and objectives, description of intended
  scope of work with expected outcomes, outline of
  activities, description of personnel functions
  with names of key staff and consultants.

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B. Grant Proposal

• Narratives typically describe
• Method of evaluation.
• Project timelinepaints a picture of project
  flow, including start and end dates, schedule of
  activities, and projected outcomes.
• Credentials--information about the applicant that
  certifies ability to successfully undertake the
  proposed effort.

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B. Grant Proposal

• In general narratives must satisfy the following
  questions
• What do we want?
• What concern will be addressed and why?
• Who will benefit and how?
• What specific objectives can be accomplished and
  how?
• How will results be measured?
• How does this funding request relate to the
  funders purpose, objectives, and priorities?
• Who are we (organization, independent producer)
  and how do we qualify to meet this need?

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B. Grant Proposal

• Budgets are cost projections.
• They are also a window into how projects will be
  implemented and managed.
• Well-planned budgets reflect carefully thought
  out projects.
• Many funders provide mandatory budget forms that
  must be submitted with the proposal.

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B. Grant Proposal

• Supporting materials are often arranged in an
  appendix.
• These materials may endorse the project and the
  applicant, provide certifications, add
  information about project personnel and
  consultants, exhibit tables and charts, etc.
• Be prepared to invest the time to collect
  resources, produce a tape, document capability,
  update a resume, collect letters, include
  reference reports or whatever is needed.

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B. Grant Proposal

• Authorized signatures are required.
• Proposals may be rejected for lack of an
  authorized signature.
• Be sure to allow the time to acquire a needed
  signature.

95
B. Grant Proposal

• There are a variety of funding opportunities
  which may be of interest to the researcher or
  graduate student
• A project grant supports a specific project or
  program of an individual or organization
• An operating grant furnishes operating expenses
  for a specific program or project of an
  individual or organization
• A restricted grant supports a particular portion
  of the project/program.

96
B. Grant Proposal

• A general purpose grant provides broad-based
  support to organizations
• Start-up funds or seed money provides
  underwriting for an individual or organization to
  establish a new project/program
• A challenge grant, like a matching grant,
  supplies an individual or organization with funds
  to match what the individual or organization
  has already secured and

97
B. Grant Proposal

• A non-cash grant, also referred to as an in-kind
  donation or service, is a grant given to an
  individual or organization which consists of
  material equipment, or services which may be
  useful to the program/project.

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C. Meta-Analysis

• The term meta-analysis was first defined by Glass
  (1976)
• Meta-analysis refers to the analysis of analyses
  . . . the statistical analysis of a large
  collection of analysis results from individual
  studies for the purpose of integrating the
  findings. It connotes a rigorous alternative to
  the casual, narrative discussions of research
  studies which typify our attempts to make sense
  of the rapidly expanding research literature (p.
  3).

99
C. Meta-Analysis

• A meta-analysis is a quantitative procedure for
  assessing and synthesizing a collection of
  primary studies.
• It is the most frequently used quantitative
  procedure for calculating treatment efficacy on
  the basis of all treatment studies that report
  sufficient data to be reanalyzed (Basso, 2003).
• In a meta-analysis, the literature base is
  thoroughly searched for experimental and
  correlational studies that are relevant to the
  investigation.

100
C. Meta-Analysis

• These studies become the data base for the
  subsequent statistical analysis.
• Unlike traditional research methods,
  meta-analysis uses the summary statistics from
  individual studies as the data points.
• A wonderful tutorial on how to complete a
  meta-analysis is available at http//www.pitt.edu/
  super1/lecture/lec1171/index.htm