CENTRAL SOIL SALINITY RESEARCH INSTITUTE, KARNAL, HARYANA

1
A CRITIQUE ON METHODOLOGY FOR ESTIMATION OF
GROUNDWATER RECHARGE IN INDIA LESSONS FROM A
VISIT TO US
S.K. Kamra
CENTRAL SOIL SALINITY RESEARCH INSTITUTE, KARNAL,
HARYANA
2
OUTLINE

• Introduction
• Groundwater decline and management
• (India, USA) Similarities and
  differences
• Safe yield v/s sustainable yield
• Groundwater Recharge (GR)
• Estimation methodology of GR (India and
• USA)
• Salient Observations and Lessons

3

• GROUNDWATER PROBLEMS
• Declining watertables with economic ramifications
  and inequity
• Drying out of GW dependent water bodies and
  ecosystems
• Groundwater salinization due to irrigation
  induced salinity, geo- genic salt water and sea
  water intrusion
• Groundwater pollution due to human activities
  (agricultural, industrial and waste water)
• Geo- genic contamination (arsenic and fluoride)

4

• INDIA
• 70 population dependent on agriculture/ GW
• 70 irrigation water from GW
• GW structures 4 million (1951), 20 million
  (2005)
• High population density large no of small
  unregistered users
• GW generate relatively less wealth in absolute
  terms
• GW is an effective vehicle of poverty
  alleviation, stabilizing agriculture and drought
  management

5

• USA
• GW vital for industries and value added
  agriculture
• GW Users few, identifiable, large holdings
• Substantial wealth generated with GW for small
  number of users
• Possible to create and enforce rules, norms and
  economic incentives
• Funding available for scientific and technical
  research on GW

6
India
7
Groundwater Statistics (Sharma, et. al, 2006)
8
Monsoons
9
Source Groundwater Resources of India, CGWB, 1995
10
Indo-Gangetic Basin
11
Development of Irrigation Technology
Irrigation Dug Well (Chars) Upto 1940s
Persian Wheel (Halt) Generally upto 1960s
GREEN REVOLUTION
Submersible
Centrifugal
Tube Well
12
STATUS OF OVEREXPLOITED AND DARK BLOCKS IN NORTH
WEST ALLUVIAL STATES
Adopted from Chadha (2002) Mehta (2006)
13

• GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN KANSAS
  (USA)

14
Extent of the High Plains aquifer in Kansas.
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
                     
15
Generalized cross section showing the High Plains
aquifer and underlying bedrock. The Ogallala
Formation, Pleistocene deposits, and alluvium
combine to form the High Plains aquifer.
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
      
16
Predevelopment saturated thickness for the High
Plains aquifer in Kansas.                      
                                                  
                                                  
                                         
17

• History of Irrigation in Kansas
• 1880s Large scale irrigation in Western Kansas
  using water diverted from Arkansas river
• Flood irrigation for rows crops using GW
• Central pivot sprinkler technology (1950s/
  1960s)
• Large scale Corn cultivation and feedlots
• Annual Economic Impact 188 Million US in
  SW Kansas

18

• Landmarks of GW Management in Kansas
• Water Rights Doctrine of prior appropriation(
  first in time, first in right)
• Extensive GW depletion in High Plain Aquifer
• gt 60 m decline in South Western Kansas
• Kansas Groundwater Act 1972 (5 GMDs)
• GMD 1,3, 4 adopted policies for maximum 40
  depletion of un-appropriated aquifer over next
  20- 25 years
• GMD 4 switched to zero depletion policy for new
  wells in 1990

19

• Historical Landmarks (contd.)
  
• Safe Yield approach (1970s/ 1980s) in GMD 2 and 5
• Total appropriated water limited to long-term
  recharge
• Minimum In-stream Flow Law (1982)
• Conjunctive management of stream- aquifer system
  to include base flow for evaluating groundwater
  permit application
• Planning and management of stream-aquifer
  systems is recommended, especially for alluvial
  aquifers

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Groundwater management district boundaries in
Kansas.                                        
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
             
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• SAFE YIELD
• V/S
• SUSTAINABLE YIELD

24
Safe Yield Regulation - Effective 1980
Two-mile radius evaluation area
Recharge 4,021 af/yr
2
3
S
0
1
W
2
9
2
3
S
0
1
W
3
0
2
3
S
0
2
W
2
5
2
3
S
0
2
W
2
6
2
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S
0
2
W
2
7
W
2
9
2
3
S
0
2
W
2
8

T

T

T

T

T

T

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T

T

T

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T

T

T
ð

T

T

T

T

T

T

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ð

T

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T
2
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0
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6
2
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3
2

T

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Halstead

T

T

T
GMD recommends to DWR that permit application is
denied

T
ð

T

T

T

T

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T

T
2
4
S
0
1
W
0
5

T

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0
1
2
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6
2
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2
2
4
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0
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0
3
2
4
S
0
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W
0
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0
5
Discharge 8,819 af/yr

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T
ð

T

T

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T

T

T

T
2
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2
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3

T

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6

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Nondomestic withdraws
Proposed nondomestic well
25
Stream- Aquifer Interaction.
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
                
26
Major perennial streams in Kansas in 1961 and
1994                                          
                                                  
                                                  
                        
27
Groundwater Management Districts Local
Management of Water Issues
State and Federal Water Agencies
Division of Water Resources
Kansas Water Office
Kansas Geological Survey
Kansas Dept Health Environment
Bureau of Reclamation
US Geological Survey
Board of Directors Groundwater Management District
Aquifer Management Program
Local Water Supply and Water Quality Issues
Public
Municipal
Industry
Domestic
Land Owners
Agriculture
Other Users
Counties
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Lessons on Groundwater Management from US Visit

• Safe yield long-term balance between annual
  withdrawls
• and recharge
• Sustainable yield is considerably less than
  recharge
• Conjunctive management of surface and ground
  waters
• Data Base Monitoring, analysis,
  prioritization and revision
• Water saving devices vital to increase water
  productivity
• Public participation, education and awareness

29

• GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
• An addition of water to a groundwater
  reservoir
• Downward flow of water through unsaturated zone
  to the water table
• Lateral and/or vertical inter aquifer flow
• Induced recharge from nearby surface waters due
  to pumping
• Artificial recharge (spreading/ well injection
  techniques)

30
ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE

• Augmentation of groundwater reservoir
• Modification of natural movement of surface water
• Utilizing suitable civil construction techniques

31
PRE-REQUISITES

• Availability of non- committed surplus monsoon
  runoff/ water in space and time
• Identification of suitable hydro- geological
  environment and sites for creating sub-surface
  reservoir through cost effective artificial
  recharge techniques.

32
SOURCE OF WATER

• Perennial stream/river/canal
• Intermittent stream/wadi/flood flow
• Urban storm-water
• Rooftop rainwater harvesting
• Waste/reclaimed water

33
RECHARGE METHODS

• SPREADING, INFILTRATION PONDS
• STREAM-BED MODIFICATION
• OPEN WELLS, SHAFTS AND TRENCHES
• BOREHOLE RECHARGE
• INDUCED BANK INFILTRATION
• ROOF-TOP CATCHMENTS

34
Recharge shaft installed at Bindrala village
(Assandh block) of Karnal District
35
The difference between ASR (Aquifer Storage and
Recovery) and ASTR (Aquifer Storage, Transfer
and Recovery
36
Pumping cum Recharging Structure at Bindrala
village (Assandh block) of Karnal Distt.
37
Bank Filtration
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ESTIMATING OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE

• Water Level Fluctuation Method
• Rainfall Infiltration Method based on ad-hoc
  norms (G.E.C., 1984 1997)
• Tracers and isotopes (injected/ environmental
  (isotope/ geochemical)
• Water balance (Soil water flux, GW flux,
  lysimeter, modelling)

40

• ESTIMATION OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
• Watertable Fluctuation Method
• Canal command areas
• Rrf (?h x Sy x A) DG - Rc- Rsw- Rt- Rgw- Rwc
• Rainfall Infiltration Method (GEC 1997)
• Norms for recharge from rainfall, canal seepage,
  applied irrigation for paddy/ non- paddy areas,
  tanks, water harvesting structures
• - adhoc norms
• - WTD, Soil , Geology, Temporal variations
  NOT considered
• - Crude generalization for ET and return flow

41

• TRACER METHODS
• ENVIRONMENTAL METHODS
• ENVIRONMENTAL TRITIUM/ CHLORIDE
• STABLE ISOTOPE
• ARTIFICIAL TRACER METHODS
• INJECTED TRITIUM
• INJECTED COBALT

42
Natural recharge measurements in India (Sukhija,
1996)
43
Natural recharge values in upper Hatni watershed
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RECHARGE ESTIMATES ( of annual rainfall)
46

• Factors Affecting Recharge
• Climate
• Soils and Geology
• Vegetation and Land Use
• Topography
• Depth to watertable
• Regionalization of point parameters is the
  major problem in
• recharge estimation

47
Four recharge-related GIS coverages for the Great
Bend Prairie region of south-central Kansas.
Solid circles indicate recharge-assessment sites.
Crosses indicate climatic stations (adapted from
Sophocleous, 1992).                             
                                                  
                                                  
                                                 
48
Recharge zonation for the Great Bend Prairie
region of central Kansas. Numbers indicate
monitoring sites (adapted from Sophocleous,
1992).                                         
                                                  
                                 
49

• Difficulties and Challenges in Estimating
  Recharge
• Limited capability to identify/ quantify
  recharge mechanisms
• and controlling factors
• Highly variable distribution of groundwater
  recharge
• (regionalization)
• Scarcity of hydro- geological data
• Temporal and spatial variation
• Complexities of soil and hydrological
  balances
• Preferential flow through cracks
• Flow dynamics through fractures
  and fissures
• Recharge estimation difficult for arid/
  semi- arid areas

50

• Recharge Estimation Methods
• Environment isotope tracer Estimates over 2-3
  decades
• Environmental geo-chemical tracer
• - Point recharge values
• - Chloride balance method most
  appropriate for arid areas
• Injected tracer Recharge processes
• Water balance methods not appropriate if WT is
  deep and water fluxes low
• Variation of recharge increases with aridity
• Recharge estimation is an iterative process, gt
  one method to be used
• It is sufficient to make approximate estimates
  and refine by monitoring and pilot studies/
  tests

51

• EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)
• Significant return flow in groundwater
  irrigated areas
• Only the fraction of applied water actually
  used for ET
• contributes to water table decline
• Groundwater decline persists only because of
  high ET
• Water saving technologies (sprinkler/ drip)
  reduce the return
• flow
• Estimation of Regional Recharge and Regional
  ET is difficult
• but essential (RS/ GIS)

52
Salient Observations and Lessons

• GW management must be planned in the context of
  regional requirements of agricultural, urban and
  industrial sectors
• Conjunctive Management of Surface and Groundwater
• GW development to be based on sustainable yield
  concept rather than safe yield
• Close interaction and coordination between
  different departments
• Development of reliable and dynamic spatial and
  temporal database
• Institutional mechansims/ legal means for
  regulating GW use involving people

53
Lessons (continued)

• Less water requiring crops in combination with
  drip/ sprinklers can result in reducing
  groundwater declines
• Estimation of regional ET and recharge by RS-GIS
• Chloride balance method most appropriate for arid
  areas
• Water balance methods not appropriate if WT is
  deep and water fluxes low
• GR through injection wells is being increasingly
  accepted
• Pilot studies on GR using treated sewage

54
Editorial, Times of India (23rd March, 2007)

• Under developed societies treat rivers as a
  natural sewage channels. Rivers are worshipped in
  countries like India, but only in abstract sense.
  The parallel could be the way women are treated
  in India, where Mother Goddesses and dowry deaths
  thrive side by side..
• Rivers like Thames and the Rhine were about to
  be declared martyrs to the industrial revolution
  before wisdom dawned on the societies that lived
  by and of them. The developing world needs to
  learn from western experience of reviving and
  sustaining rivers..