Appendix

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Appendix
Chapter One
THEORY AND RESEARCH TOOLS FOR LEARNING ABOUT
BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS
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Theory in Organizational Research (Pp. 43-45)
Theory - a set of statements about the
interrelationships between concepts that allow
us to predict and to explain various processes
and events
Theory - serves three important functions
Organize large amounts of data into meaningful
propositions Hypotheses - logically derived
statements that follow from theory
Summarize knowledge by making sense of bits of
information
Guide scientists to areas needing research
Theory - must be testable - purpose of research
is to test theory
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Figure A.1 Theory Testing The Research Process
Theory proposes relationships between concepts
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Surveys- questionnaires in which people report
how they feel about various aspects of
themselves, their jobs, and their organizations
Three Steps in Survey Approach Identify
variables of interest Measure variables as
precisely as possible Determine how variables
are related to one another
Analyzing survey results Correlation
coefficient - direction of relationship -
strength of relationship - varies between
1.0 and -1.0 - stronger the relationship,
more accurate predictions
Limitations of Survey Research Correlation does
not imply causality - several viable
interpretations of a correlation
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Figure A.2 Positive and Negative Correlations
(High)
Perceived Fairness of Pay
(Low)
(Low)
(High)
(High)
(Low)
Willingness to Help Co-worker
Interest in Quitting
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Experimental Research The Logic of Cause and
Effect (Pp. 48-51)
Experimental Method - a research technique used
to determine cause-and- effect relationships
between the variables of interest (i.e., the
extent to which one variable causes another)
Experimental Logic - basic elements Random
assignment of participants to experimental
conditions Independent variable - a variable
that is systematically manipulated by the
researcher to determine its effects on
behavior Dependent variable - the behavior that
is being measured by a researcher that is
dependent on the independent variable
Drawing Valid Conclusions from Experiments - all
experimental conditions other than the
independent variable must be kept constant -
differences in the dependent variable may be
attributed to the independent variable
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Figure A.5 Trade-offs Between Lab and Field
Experimentation
(High)
Amount of Realism and Control
(Low)
Lab
Field
Experimental Setting
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Qualitative Research Methods (Pp. 51,52)
Qualitative Research - a nonempirical type of
research that relies on preserving the natural
qualities of the situation being studied - two
types
Naturalist observation - a research technique in
which people are systematically observed in
situations of interest to the researcher Partici
pant observation - people systematically
observe what occurs in a setting by becoming an
insider (i.e., part of that setting itself) -
given its strengths and weaknesses, observational
research considered useful in providing basic
insights rather than definitive knowledge
Case method - a research technique in which a
particular organization is thoroughly described
and analyzed to understand what occurred in that
setting - results may have limited
generalizability
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Perceptual Biases - predispositions to
misperceive others that interfere with making
completely accurate judgments Fundamental
attribution error - tendency to attribute others
actions to internal causes while largely
ignoring external factors - strong bias because
it is easier to attribute actions to
others traits than to recognize the
complexity of others situation
Halo effect - tendency for overall impressions of
others to affect objective evaluations of their
specific traits Positive halo - good impression
causes us to view what the person does in
favorable terms, even if we have no knowledge
about the specific behaviors - results in
consistently high ratings Negative halo -
results in consistently low ratings
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Performance Appraisal - process of evaluating
employees on various work-related dimensions An
inherently biased process - process is far from
objective - ratings depend on extent to which
performance is consistent with raters
initial expectations - ratings reflect
similar-to-me bias - ratings qualified by the
nature of attributions made about performance
Cultural differences in performance evaluations -
evaluations of others work influenced by the
nations from which they come
Impression Management in the Employment Interview
- efforts by individuals to improve how they
appear to prospective employers Self-promotion -
asserting that one has desirable characteristics
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Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning (cont.)
Schedules of reinforcement - rules governing the
timing and frequency of administering
reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement - schedule in which all
desired behaviors are reinforced
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement - schedule
in which only some desired behaviors are
reinforced - fixed interval - a fixed period of
time must elapse between reinforcements
- variable interval - a variable period of time
(based on some average) must elapse
between reinforcements
- fixed ratio - a fixed number of responses must
occur between reinforcements
- variable ratio - a variable number of
responses based on some average) must
occur between reinforcements
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Innovative Reward Systems - based on various
principles of learning
Skill-based pay - people are paid based on the
number of different skills they have learned
relevant to performing one or more jobs in the
organization
Team-based rewards - employees are paid based on
their teams performance
Organizational Behavior Management (OB Mod) -
principles Pinpoint the desired behavior -
specify new, desired behavior Perform baseline
audit - measure level of behavior to be
changed Define a criterion standard -
performance goal Choose a reinforcer - nature of
reward for desired behavior Selectively reward
desired behavior - shaping Periodically
re-evaluate the program - careful monitoring -
OB Mod has successfully stimulated a variety of
behaviors in many different organizations