SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS

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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND INTERPRETIVISM TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH EXIT
gt Positivism gt Interpretivism gt Research
method gt Research topic gt Research conduct
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
Epistemology is the study of knowledge. The
theory of knowledge questions what knowledge is
valid. As sociologists, we too need to consider
the validity of the knowledge that we gain. The
way in which we gain the information is key to
this discussion.
Empiricists believe that the true knowledge can
only be gained through experience. This is much
in contrast to the ancients who conducted most of
their work through thought and contemplation.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The methods of the natural sciences (Astronomy,
Biology, Chemistry and Physics) are firmly based
in the realms of empiricists principles. Theory
and research are intertwined in either the
deductive or inductive approach

• Inductive approach
• Theory is deduced from observations and findings

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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The methods of the natural sciences (Astronomy,
Biology, Chemistry and Physics) are firmly based
in the realms of empiricists principles. Theory
and research are intertwined in either the
deductive or inductive approach

• Deductive approach to research
• Theory leads to observations and findings

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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
Social scientists have embraced the methodology
of natural scientists with the doctrine of
POSITIVISM.
Essentially, positivism advocates that social
study should be carried out using the methodology
of the natural sciences. However, as with most
things, a precise definition is elusive and many
authors differ in their exact interpretation of
positivism.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
In addition to this, the principle of positivism
has been taken to include
DEDUCTIVISM
INDUCTIVISM
OBJECTIVE
PHENOMENALISM
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
In addition to this, the principle of positivism
has been taken to include
DEDUCTIVISM
The principle states that the whole purpose of a
theory is to generate a testable
hypothesis. Without a testable hypothesis, laws
cannot be confirmed.
INDUCTIVISM
OBJECTIVE
PHENOMENALISM
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
In addition to this, the principle of positivism
has been taken to include
DEDUCTIVISM
Theory
INDUCTIVISM
Theory generates research.
OBJECTIVE
Research
PHENOMENALISM
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
In addition to this, the principle of positivism
has been taken to include
DEDUCTIVISM
Knowledge is arrived at through the gathering of
facts. Laws are deduced after observation.
INDUCTIVISM
OBJECTIVE
PHENOMENALISM
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
In addition to this, the principle of positivism
has been taken to include
DEDUCTIVISM
Observations
INDUCTIVISM
Observations feed theory
OBJECTIVE
Theory
PHENOMENALISM
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The progress of knowledge through the centuries
has gradually moved from a consideration that
knowledge came from within, to one that comes
from deduction, having looked at the reality of
the laws around us. This sounds like we have
moved towards the inductive doctrine. However,
the natural and social sciences use both
doctrines in parallel. In 1997, Charmaz reported
about the experiences of chronic illness, her
findings deduced from semi-structured
questioning. Observations led to a theory
intuitivism. This could be paralleled with the
discovery of the structure of DNA. The analysis
of many x-ray patterns allowed a theory of the
structure to be developed.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
Around about the same time, Keeley and De Graff
reported on research that had been prompted by a
theory that the country of a persons birth
imparts an influence on their religious beliefs.
They set out to test this hypothesis and found
the results indicated that their theory was
valid. This could be paralleled in the natural
sciences with Gell-Manns work postulating the
internal structure of protons. Subsequent
research by others did indeed indicate that
protons exhibited the internal structure that
Gell-Mann had hypothesised. These are examples of
the deductive.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
In addition to this, the principle of positivism
has been taken to include
Science and social science must be objective.
That is to say that no value must be placed on
taking one particular solution rather than
another.
DEDUCTIVISM
INDUCTIVISM
The validity of the knowledge is the overriding
principle concern of the researcher.
OBJECTIVE
PHENOMENALISM
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
In addition to this, the principle of positivism
has been taken to include
Only phenomena can be warranted as knowledge. As
a result, only knowledge that has been confirmed
by the senses can be regarded as true
knowledge. The hypothesis is just an hypothesis
until is has been confirmed to be knowledge by
experience.
DEDUCTIVISM
INDUCTIVISM
OBJECTIVE
PHENOMENALISM
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
Positivism is not synonymous with science.
Philosophers of science differ in their
interpretations of scientific practices from
those of social sciences, particularly since the
1960s. Kuhn has hypothesised that scientific
change occurs in paradigm changes. New theories
occur as new data is found that fundamentally
shifts the direction of scientific knowledge,
forcing scientists to rethink their previously
accepted norms.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS

• Treating society from the doctrine of positivism
  should obtain results which are
• Unbiased by the observer
• Able to prove conclusively or disprove an
  hypothesis
• Unbiased by participants

The process of dealing with numerical data in
particular, reduces the possibility of deductions
being influenced by extraneous factors or from
within the experiment itself.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
A criticism of the positivists approach is that
the scientific approach of the natural scientists
is not appropriate to the study of social
behaviour. The natural scientist is involved in
trying to explain what is happening but the role
of the social scientist can be seen as trying to
understand social behaviour in the context of
those that are a part of it (Schutz
1962). Clearly, an atom or molecule does not put
meaning on its behaviour and so the social
scientist is trying to achieve a different
objective to the natural scientist.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
This alternative approach to positivism is called
INTERPRETIVISM.
Like positivism, there is no clear cut definition
but the general principles follow from the
discussions on the previous slide that the
approach of the natural sciences is not
appropriate for social scientists due to the
nature of what they are studying and their aims
in terms of levels of understanding.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
To summarise the key issues of interpretivism

• It is an alternative to positivism
• It recognises the differences between the subject
  of natural scientists investigations and those
  of social scientists
• It moves towards providing a subjective
  understanding of the participants social action
• It aims to theorise a meaning for social action

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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
For example Using participant observation and
semi-structured interviewing, Foster investigated
a housing estate in south London which had a very
high crime rate. Her investigations revealed that
the participants (those who lived there), did not
perceive this to be the case and mostly felt no
more under threat than those in other
communities. Foster had investigated how the
participants viewed their own situation and
related their feelings to factors which the
participants themselves had mentioned.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
It is common for researchers to use both
positivism and interpretivism in the same piece
of research. The use of a combination of
different methods in a single piece of research
is called triangulation.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method will depend upon
the topic and conduct of the research to some
extent but let us consider the choice in more
detail
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method

• Practical influences are imposed by the
  limitations of the research methods and the
  circumstances in which they are used e.g.
• Participant observation this will require
  access to groups of subjects
• Sample surveys, if large, will be expensive and
  if too small will not be representative

Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
Theoretical assumptions will depend upon the
doctrine that the sociologist follows Interpreti
vism favours qualitative methods. These will
provide insight into the meanings of social
behaviour. Participant observation is common.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
Theoretical assumptions will depend upon the
doctrine that the sociologist follows Interactio
nists methods are frequently used by those
studying groups perceived to be oppressed in
order to allow them to express themselves freely.

Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
The topic being studied will certainly influence
the research method used Historical
Studies There will be fewer people (if any) to
interview so frequently researchers rely upon
secondary data. Examples include data from the
national census.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
The topic being studied will certainly influence
the research method used Large scale
studies There will be many people to interview
so frequently researchers can rely upon primary
data.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
The topic being studied will certainly influence
the research method used Non literate societies
Participant observation is frequently used so
as not to introduce any bias into the experiment.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
The topic being studied will certainly influence
the research method used Deviants Participant
observation is frequently used which is often
followed up by interviewing.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
It would be valuable to carry out research with
participants that were unaware of the
observer. However, this would be considered
unethical. Covert research should not involve
either deception or invasion of privacy.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
The study of deviants could involve the
experimenter with either having a knowledge of or
becoming involved in crime which is ethically
unacceptable.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
Just as in the natural sciences, any observation
means interacting with the participant. If the
participant becomes involved with the process,
his or her perspective might change. However, it
is also possible that the research will benefit
the participant.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
Many problems have been solved by a chance remark
or chance circumstances.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
Additionally, there are the motivations of the
sociologists themselves. Bell Newby thought
that the principal driving forces for
sociologists were both money and organisation.
Practical influences Theoretical assumptions The
topic Ethical considerations Chance and
inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
Minimising personal involvement makes it less
likely that the experimenter will influence the
results of the investigation.
A serious consideration of the possible research
methods warrants in-depth evaluation. Theoretical,
practical and ethical issues should be
addressed.
However, it could also limit the extent of the
understanding of the results.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of research method
Essentially, a balanced view has to be taken.
Sociologists will employ high levels of control
to make the research more reliable. The downside
to this is that research will then be less
natural.
A serious consideration of the possible research
methods warrants in- depth evaluation. Theoretical
, practical and ethical issues should be
addressed.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of topic
The topic will clearly depend upon the
researchers natural interests, coupled with the
doctrine that the sociologist is most likely to
follow. Clearly the sociologist is a target for
his or her own research!
The first step in any research is to formulate
the research question which will be based upon
the topic that has been chosen for research.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of topic

The sociologists view of the importance of a
topic will be an important factor in the choice
of research topic.. A keen interest in the
importance of urban renewal will tend to bias a
researcher in this direction.
The first step in any research is to formulate
the research question which will be based upon
the topic that has been chosen for research.
It is unlikely that he or she will devote time
and effort to something that they think is
trivial!
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of topic

Funding is also a crucial factor. Funds are
available from many sources including government,
industry and privately financed institutions.
The first step in any research is to formulate
the research question which will be based upon
the topic that has been chosen for research.
Since these bodies are providing the funding,
they will only be willing to pay for certain
areas of research which lie within their
interests.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of topic

The practicality of certain areas of research is
crucial too. Company directors have hardly been
the subject of researchers endeavours at all.
The first step in any research is to formulate
the research question which will be based upon
the topic that has been chosen for research.
This is primarily because as a group of people,
they are unwilling to divulge information about
themselves.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of topic

A similar argument applies to various research
which would require secondary data that is not
available.
The first step in any research is to formulate
the research question which will be based upon
the topic that has been chosen for research.
This could be because the data has never been
collected, has not been collected into a useable
format, or has a restricted access.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The choice of topic

The research must fall within the ethical
guidelines that are laid out by the various
institutions to which sociologists belong.
The first step in any research is to formulate
the research question which will be based upon
the topic that has been chosen for research.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The conduct of research

The way in which research is carried out is
mainly an ethical problem.
BSA British Sociological Association in their
Statement of Ethical Practice SRA Social
Research Association in their Ethical
Guidelines BPS British Psychological Society
in their Ethical Principles and Guidelines ASA
American Sociological Society in their Code
of Ethics
Official guidance on ethical principles comes
from the following four institutions
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The conduct of research

The way in which research is carried out is
mainly an ethical problem.

• Is there harm to participants?
• Is there a lack of informed consent of the
  participants?
• Is there an invasion of the participants
  privacy?
• Is deception involved?

There are four underlying principles which
underpin these various guidelines
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The conduct of research
Harm to participants development, stress, loss
of self esteem, inducing participants to take
part in degrading or reprehensible or even
illegal acts. There are cases where there has
been the potential to harm participants
consider the possible identification of pupils
into narrow achievement bands for research this
could have a detrimental effect long-term.

• Is there harm to participants?

Physical harm is something that can be fairly
easily predicted but there are other forms of
harm to consider too.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The conduct of research
Researchers may well make discoveries about
participants that the participants do not wish to
become public knowledge. In some areas of
research, even the participants partners might
not be aware of the participants attributes.

• Is there harm to participants?

The confidentiality of researchers records is
covered under the concept of harm.
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The conduct of research
This is easier said than done. It is quite
possible that the researchers themselves are not
aware of the full implications of the
research. Additionally, consenting researchers
are unlikely to act as naturally as might be
hoped.

2. Is there a lack of informed consent?
Informed consent is not just consent! Informed
means that the participants should be made aware
of the full implications of the research.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The conduct of research
Needless to say, although considered unethical,
covert observation does still happen. The BSA
statement itself says that such research should
only be used where no other method is possible
and then goes on to expand on the necessary
anonymity of the participants when reporting
results.

2. Is there a lack of informed consent?
Informed consent is not just consent! Informed
means that the participants should be made aware
of the full implications of the research.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The conduct of research
Participants were recruited in the role of
teachers who punished their students by
administering electric shocks (the pupils were
actors and there were no real shocks). Milgram
cajoled participants into giving greater shocks
in the interests of the research. He was actually
concerned with the way people had behaved in Nazi
concentration camps!

4. Is there deception?
Deception occurs when the researchers do not
present their experiment for what it really
is. Milgram in 1966 is a classic example of
deception.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The conduct of research
The very nature of much sociological research
requires some form of deception. Observers will
try to mingle such that their true identity as
researchers does not effect the behaviour of the
participants. So why do we concern ourselves
with the concept of deception? after all, it is
common place in many social interactions.

4. Is there deception?
Can we be free of deception?
THE END
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
The conduct of research
The guidelines will be based on the guidelines of
the various professional bodies and research
projects should be passed by the ethical
committee for their approval.

Ethical Committees
Universities have their own ethical committees
which will issue guidelines on ethical practice.
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SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
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