Definition of Learning

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Definition of Learning

• Any lasting change
• in behavior or mental processes
• that results from experience.

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Learning and Human Behavior

• Both behavior and cognitive learning occurs in
  humans.
• Human behavior more influenced by learning than
  instincts than other animals.
• Human learning ranges from simple to complex.

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Core Concept 6-1

• Classical conditioning is a basic form of
  learning in which a stimulus that produces an
  innate reflex becomes attached with a previously
  neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power
  to elicit essentially the same response.

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Classical Conditioning

• Classical--a form or system considered of first
  significance in earlier times.
• Conditioning--to adapt or modify to conform to an
  environment.

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Classical Conditioning

• Involves a reflexive (automatic) response
• Involves a neutral stimulus
• Involves learning an association between two
  stimuli
• Involves a stimulus that elicits (brings out) a
  reflexive response and a neutral stimulus

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Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

• Russian physiologist
• Studied digestion
• Won Nobel Prize
• Became interested in conditioning

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Prior to conditioning
Neutral stimulus (tone)
(Orientation to sound but no response)
Unconditioned stimulus (food powder in mouth)
Unconditioned response (salivation)
Conditioning
Neutral stimulus CS (tone)
Conditioned response (salivation)

Unconditioned stimulus (food powder)
After conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (tone)
Conditioned response (salivation)
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The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Elicits an unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without
prior learning
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the
conditioned response
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that
has become associated with the unconditioned
stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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Pavlovs Dogs

• UCS-food
• UCR-salivation to food
• CS-bell
• CR-salivation to bell

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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
Rest period
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Chance Wayne
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Charles M.
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Claiborne (Grandtractor)
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Core Concept 6-2

• In operant conditioning, the consequences of
  behavior, such as rewards and punishment,
  influence the chance that the behavior will occur
  again.

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Law of Effect

• Responses that produce desirable effects are
  learned.
• Trial and error learning.

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B.F. Skinner

• Radical behaviorist
• Preferred the term reinforcer.
• Studied rats and pigeons in a Skinner Box

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Skinner Baby Box
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Reinforcer

• Condition that occurs after a response.
• Strengthens the response it follows.
• Either presenting a positive stimulus condition
  or removing a negative one.

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Positive Reinforcement

• Stimulus presented after a response
• Increases probability of that response occurring
  again.
• Roughly same as a reward.

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Candy
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A Smile
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Money
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Laughing
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Grades
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Recognition
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Green Stamps (for my parents)
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Negative Reinforcement

• Stimulus removed after a response.
• Increases probability of that response occurring
  again.
• Examples

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Nagging
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Seat Belt Buzzer
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Extinction

• Response is weakened when reinforcer is removed.

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• Frequency of reinforcement--how often is
  reinforcement given.
• Timing of reinforcement--when is reinforcement
  give.

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Continuous Reinforcement

• All correct responses are reinforced.

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Intermittent Reinforcement

• Some, but not all, responses are reinforced.

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Resistance to Extinction

• Intermittent reinforcement makes responses more
  able to resist extinction than continuous
  reinforcement.
• In other words, the responses persist in spite of
  no reinforcement.

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Intermittent Schedules

• Some are based on the number of responses that
  must occur before reinforcement (ratio).
• Others are based on how much time has elapsed
  (interval).
• Some are predictable (fixed).
• Others change randomly (variable).

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Fixed Ratio Schedule

• Reinforcement comes after a certain, unvarying
  number of responses.
• Example piecework

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Variable Ratio Schedule

• Number responses to obtain reinforcement varies.
• Example gambling

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Fixed Interval Schedule

• Reinforcement comes after a certain, fixed time
  period.
• Example weekly quiz.

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Variable Interval Schedule

• Time period between reinforcement varies.
• Example fishing.

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Types of Reinforcers

• Primary--reinforcers that have a innate
  biological basis.
• Secondary--reinforcers that acquire their power
  by association.

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Food
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Grades
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Paycheck
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Attention
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Recognition
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Water
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Incentives
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Air
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Cash
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Premack Principle

• More preferred act can be used to reinforce a
  less preferred act.
• Grandmas Principle--eat your vegetables and
  you can have desert.
• Can have application to self-control
  development--study first and then go out.

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Punishment

• Stimulus that occurs after a response that
  weakens that response.
• Can be negative or positive punishment.

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Positive Punishment

• Application of an aversive stimulus after a
  response.

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Negative Punishment

• Removal of an attractive stimulus after a
  response.

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Partner Yells at You
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Parents Take Teenagers Keys
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Effectiveness of Punishment

• Punishment will decrease a response.
• Difficult to use effectively.
• Side-effects occur.

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Example of Effective Punishment

• Squirrels attracted to bird feeders in our yard.
• Ate all the seed and ran off the birds.

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Example of Effective Punishment

• Your dog barks all the time and annoys the
  neighbors and you.

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Problems with Punishment

• Power to suppress behavior usually disappears
  when threat of punishment is removed.
• Punishment triggers escape or aggression.
• Punishment inhibits other learning.
• Punishment is often applied unequally.

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Guidelines for Punishment

• Punishment should
• be swift (immediate).
• be certain (consistent).
• be limited in duration and intensity (not
  abusive).
• clearly target the behavior.
• be limited to the situation in which the response
  occurred.
• not give mixed messages
• focus on negative rather than positive punishment.

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Core Concept 6-3

• According to cognitive psychology, some forms of
  learning must be explained as changes in mental
  processes, rather than as changes in behavior
  alone.

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Insight Learning

• Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden
  reorganization of perceptions.

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Cognitive Map

• A mental representation of physical space used to
  get from one place to another.

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Observational Learning

• New responses are acquired after watching others
  behavior and the consequences of their behavior.