Happy Earth Day ?

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Happy Earth Day ?
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First Earth Day

• Senator Gaylord Nelson (Wisconsin)
• Building on idea of anti-war rallies, decided to
  hold teach-in about environment
• April 22, 1970 estimated 20 million people (10
  US population) participated

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Toxic Substances

• ES118 Spring 2008

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Love Canal

• Hooker Chemical Co. dumped tons of toxic waste
  (PCBs, dioxin, benzene, lindane) in Niagara
  Falls, NY
• 1953 Hooker sold site to Niagara Falls School
  Board for 1 and deed that absolved them of
  liability
• 1978 State disclosed site could be harmful
• 1,000 families affected, higher miscarriage rate,
  many more birth defects
• Lois Gibbs formed homeowners association,
  national attention

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Love Canal--Impact

• 1978 President Carter declared LC federal
  disaster area, cleanup began
• Occidental Petroleum (bought Hooker) ultimately
  paid over 200 million to state, federal
  government and residents
• Led to major federal legislation that gave EPA
  authority to control hazardous waste

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Aftermath of Love Canal

• 1980 Comprehensive Response, Compensation, and
  Liability Act (CRCLA), commonly known as
  Superfund
• Goal Identify hazardous waste sites and clean up
  sites on a priority basis
• Worst sites put on National Priorities List (NPL)
  and scheduled for cleanup
• Make responsible parties pay for cleanup when
  possible
• Initially 1.6 billion fund to identify and clean
  up worst sites, tax on manufacturers of certain
  organic chemicals and oil importers
• 1986 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
  (SARA) right to know policy
• Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know
  Act provided for public release of information
  about chemicals made by, stored in, and released
  by businesses through Toxics Release Inventory
  (TRI)
• What happened?
• gt44,000 sites evaluated, by 2004 about 1,200
  active NPL sites, and about 900 cleaned up and/or
  removed
• gt27 billion spent
• Depletion of trust fund under Bush Administration
  in 2003, relies now on annual appropriations of
  tax dollars and money recovered from companies
  linked to sites

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Overview

• Milestones and extent of problem
• Factors that affect toxicity and classes of toxic
  substances
• How do we monitor impact of toxic substances?
• How do we regulate toxic substances?

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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(No Transcript)
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The chemical revolution

• The number and amount of chemicals substances
  sold commercially in the US has grown dramatically

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How widespread a problem?

• 35,000 chemicals used daily in US industry
• 500-1,000 new chemicals created annually
• 120,000 US establishments create and distribute
  chemicals
• lt7 proposed for manufacture EPA reviewed
• gt 20,700 pesticides used in US, and gt1.2 billion
  lbs of pesticides produced annually, with gt890
  active ingredients
• EPA has prohibited or restricted manufacture of
  more than 500 commercial chemicals, including
  DDT, dioxin, asbestos, PCBs

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Are toxic substances unique?

• Many are valuable for agricultural, industrial,
  or consumer products
• We often dont have a good idea of the degree of
  risk of these chemicals
• Probability of injury may be small for any one
  individual, but since even low levels of exposure
  can be harmful, often a problem for many

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Toxicity response

• Type and amount of health damage
• Acute toxicity Immediate or rapid reaction
• Subtle (e.g., cough or headache from urban air
  pollution)
• Violent (e.g., convulsions induced from exposure
  to certain pesticides)
• Chronic toxicity Permanent or long-lasting
  consequence
• Examples Mesothelioma, rare form of cancer from
  exposure to asbestos

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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What factors affect toxicity?

• Dose Amount of a substance a person has
  ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin
• Frequency and duration of exposure
• Biological reactivity of the chemical in question
• Age and health of person exposed
• Routs of exposure
• Inhalation (e.g., smoking, sitting in
  traffic)--rapid
• Ingestion (e.g., food, liquids)
• Dermal exposure (e.g., spilled on skin)typically
  slow
• How well a person can detoxify a substance
• Genetic makeup of a person
• Synergistic responses Response can be greater
  than sum of individual chemicals

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Classes of toxic substances

• Much of our concern about toxic chemicals stem
  from the long-term increased risk from
• Mutagens
• Carcinogens
• Teratogens
• Immune and nervous system
• Endocrine system

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Mutagens
Classes of toxic substances ? Mutagens Carcinogens
Teratogens Immune nervous systems Endocrine
system

• Substances that can cause mutations in DNA.
  Examples include
• Chemicals (e.g., Benzene)
• Radiation (e.g., UV, high-energy radiation)

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Carcinogens
Classes of toxic substances Mutagens ?
Carcinogens Teratogens Immune nervous
systems Endocrine system

• Chemicals or ionizing radiation that cause or
  promote cancer
• In US, approximately 1 in 2 men and 1 in 3 women
  will develop some form of cancer
• In US, cancer kills about 560,000 people/year
• Worldwide, approximately 6 million people/year
• What is link between chemicals and cancer?
• We dont know exactly, but 1 study in US est.
  8,000 cancer deaths from air pollution, 8,000
  from food additives and industrial products, and
  16,000 from occupational exposure
• National Cancer Institute recognizes link between
  some cancer deaths and environmental pollution
• Very difficult to make direct link
• Often 10-40 years may elapse between initial
  exposure and appearance of detectable symptoms

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Teratogens
Classes of toxic substances Mutagens Carcinogens ?
Teratogens Immune nervous systems Endocrine
system

• Birth defects are physical (structural),
  biochemical, or functional abnormality
• Examples include cleft palate, lack of limbs, or
  spina bifida
• Estimated 7-12 of all newborns in US have birth
  defects
• Agents that cause harm or birth defects to a
  fetus or embryo called teratogens. Examples
  include
• Ethyl alcohol (low birth weight, developmental
  problems)
• Radiation
• Chemicals (e.g., Thalidomide)
• We do not know what percentage of birth defects
  caused by chemicals in the environment

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Immune nervous systems

• Classes of toxic substances
• Mutagens
• Carcinogens
• Teratogens
• Immune nervous systems
• Endocrine system

• Immune System specialized cells and tissues that
  protect body against disease and harmful
  substances by forming antibodies that make agent
  harmless
• Examples Dioxins and arsenic
• Nervous system Brain, spinal chord, and
  peripheral nerves
• Example snake venom is a neurotoxin
• PCBs, mercury, and certain pesticides are examples

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Endocrine System

• Classes of toxic substances
• Mutagens
• Carcinogens
• Birth defects
• Immune nervous systems
• ? Endocrine system

• Complex network of glands that releases very
  small amounts of hormones into the bloodstream of
  humans and other vertebrate animals
• Low doses of these messengers turn on and off
  bodily systems that control sexual reproduction,
  growth, development, learning ability, and
  behavior
• Examples Dioxins at high levels are
  carcinogenic, at low levels may disrupt hormone
  receptors
• Pthalates Softening agents added to plastics
  (e.g., IV bags, plastic milk jugs, pop bottles)
  act as estrogens and may be partly responsible
  for earlier onset of sexual maturity, affect male
  reproductive health, and probable human carcinogen

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What do we know?

• National Academy of Science estimates
• Only bout 10 of 80,000 chemicals in commercial
  use thoroughly screened for toxicity
• Only 2 adequately tested to determine whether
  they are mutagens, carcinogens, or teratogens
• Even fewer tested for possible damage to nervous,
  endocrine, and immune systems
• Worst toxics are persistent, bioaccumulative,
  toxic, and transport long distances

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How do we monitor the problem?

• Body burden data
• Human health indicators (epidemiological approach)

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Human health indicators
Source National Cancer
Institute
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How do we regulate toxic substances?

• More than 24 federal laws and a dozen federal
  agencies are concerned with regulating the
  manufacture, distribution, and disposal of toxic
  substances
• CAA and CWA deal primarily with by-products,
  while toxic substances often relate to products
  we use/need
• CAA and CWA include special provisions regulating
  toxic and other hazardous pollutants

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Examples of types of toxics regulation

• Classes of chemicals
• Mode of exposure

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Classes of chemicals
Types of toxic regulations ? Classes of
chemicals Mode of exposure Other toxic substances

• Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
  Act (FIFRA) (agricultural chemicals)
• Requires producers to conduct extensive
  toxicology tests in the laboratory and the field
  before applying to produce and sell new
  agricultural chemicals
• Problem mandates testing for carcinogenicity,
  but does not mandate that a chemical be tested
  for some other significant risks, or synergistic
  effects

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Mode of exposure
Types of toxic regulations Classes of chemicals ?
Mode of exposure Other toxic substances

• Occupational and Safety and Health Act (OSHA)
  limits workplace exposure to unhealthy levels of
  toxics and other dangerous substances

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Other toxic substances
Types of toxic regulations Classes of
chemicals Mode of exposure ? Other toxic
substances

• Toxic Substances and Control Act (TSCA) (1976)
• Catch all statutes regulates creation,
  manufacture, distribution of toxic substances
• In contrast to FIFRA, does NOT automatically
  require producers to conduct extensive battery of
  tests, so most TSCA chemicals have not undergone
  broad testing
• Producer must file pre-manufacture notification
  (PMN) with EPA before import or manufacture
  chemical not in currently in commercial use. EPA
  can approve or restrict
• EPA also can examine chemicals that were in
  commercial use before law passed

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What regulatory options?

• Government can ban a substance, or permit
  production and attempt to control exposure
• Government needs to decide on appropriate
  regulatory standard
• Health-based approach
• Feasibility approach
• Use risk-benefit to regulate when risks outweigh
  social benefits

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Health-based

• Regulatory approaches
• Health-based
• Feasibility
• Risk-benefit

• Proscribe all risks or significant risks
• Historic example of zero-risk approach is the
  Delaney Clause in the Federal Food Drug and
  Cosmetic Act (FFDC)
• If food additive causes cancer in animals,
  Delaney Clause prohibits the additives use
• Critics say unrealistic to ban something if only
  1 in billions chance of cancer
• Defenders argue that most risks turn out to be
  worse than originally thought and require
  precautionary approach
• Replaced in 1996 by Food Quality Protection Act
  (which amended FIFRA and FFDCA)does not use
  health-based approach, uses risk-based approach
• Clean Air Act (NAAQs), Safe Drinking Water Act
  (Maximum Contaminant Level Goals) are other
  examples of health-based standards

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Feasibility statutes

• Regulatory approaches
• Health-based
• ? Feasibility
• Risk-benefit

• Reduce risk as technologically or economically
  feasible
• OSHA
• Congress requires agencies to reduce toxic health
  risks, but only to the extent feasible
• Major question is what feasible means
• Courts have ruled this means both economically
  and technologically feasible
• Other examples include Clean Water Act and Safe
  Drinking Water Act (Maximum Containment Levels)

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Risk-Benefit Statutes

• Regulatory approaches
• Health-based
• Feasibility
• ? Risk-benefit

• FIFRA EPA must balance risks and benefits in
  determining whether a pesticide presents an
  unreasonable risk
• Before registering pesticide, EPA must determine
  it will not pose unreasonable risk taking into
  account the economic, social, and environmental
  costs and benefits of pesticides.
• Many environmentalists worry that statutes like
  FIFRA and TSCA that require EPA to balance risk
  and benefit may lead to paralysis by analysis
• Risk-benefit analysis has many critics
• Can slow down regulation and make it more
  difficult and thus less likely government will
  restrict harmful toxic substances
• For example, under FIFRA it took EPA 17 years to
  carry out a review of pesticide Alar

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Informational approaches

• Public pressure and market choices to address
  problem
• Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know
  Act of 1986 through TRI as we discussed earlier
  companies reduce toxic releases because they
  dont want to show up high on list
• Problems include
• Self-reporting can encourage companies to change
  reporting standards
• May not require companies to report amount of
  toxics used or what is in their productsso
  ultimately may do little to reduce exposure to
  toxins

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Precaution

• Politically, truly precautionary regulation can
  be difficult to sustain
• Under the precaution approach, some substances
  will be regulated that will eventually turn out
  to be relatively safe
• Producers and consumers will likely cite false
  positives as evidence that the government is
  over-regulating

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Future of toxics

• We need new paradigm of toxic pollution
  policyonly fraction of EPAs resources devoted
  to prevention instead of end-of-pipe cleanup
• European cxample REACH (Registration,
  Evaluation, and Authorization of Chemicals)
• European Union policy based on precautionary
  principal
• Standards for taking regulatory action much more
  proactive/precautionary than US policies

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Bisphenol-A (BPA)

• Widely used to make hard, clear polycarbonate
  plastics for baby bottles and sipping cups, water
  bottles, and food containers (most canned foods)
  (7 plastic that is clear and hard)
• Trace amounts of BPA leach from polycarbonate
  containers into foods and liquids
• 2003-4 study by CDC found detectable levels of
  BPA in 93 of urine samples collected from gt
  2,500 adults and children over 6
• Last week US National Toxicology Program released
  draft report that rats fed or injected low doses
  BPA developed
• precancerous tumors
• urinary tract problems
• reached puberty early
• possibility that bisphenol-a may alter human
  development cannot be dismissed.

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Bisphenol-A alternatives

• In past week Nalgene announced will stop using
  BPA in their polycarbonate products
• Many large Canadian retailers, including
  Wal-Mart, removing food-related products made
  with plastics containing BPA
• Wal-Mart (and other retailers) have agreed to
  pull baby bottles made with bisphenol-a from its
  U.S. stores early next year
• Other alternatives
• Fresh (or frozen) vegetables alternative can
  liners used by some companies and Japan
• Glass, porcelain and stainless-steel containers,
  particularly for hot foods and liquids
• Several companies sell BPA-free baby bottles and
  sippy cups

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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MAINE CASE STUDYAn Act to Protect Childrens
Health and the Environment from Toxic Chemicals
in Toys and Childrens Products

• Last week Maine Legislature passed and governor
  signed bill into law to track, and potentially
  ban, harmful chemicals in childrens products
• LD 2048 requires Department of Environmental
  Protection to keep a list of chemicals it
  identifies as harmful
• DEP identifies chemicals of high concern
• Manufacturers of childrens products sold in
  Maine have to disclose if their products contain
  these chemicals
• Could be required to replace the chemicals if
  safer, cost-effective alternatives exist
• Maine is going to participate in interstate
  clearinghouse of information of what is in
  childrens products so others can learn from the
  states experience
• Students in ES266 The Environment and Human
  Health (Prof. Carlson) helped to support this
  bill through class projects, including holding a
  public information session and talking with
  legislators

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Brominated Flame Retardants

• Common in plastics, electronics, textiles in
  furniture rugs foams used in mattresses
  furniture
• BFRs in human breast milk rapidly increasing,
  threaten normal brain development in fetuses and
  children
• Accumulating in people and animals
• Policies to phase out have been adopted in EU,
  Sweden, Norway, Germany, Austria, China,
  Netherlands
• Many corporations are switching to safer flame
  retardants
• Maine Banned BRFs because similar to PCBs
• First in nation law to ban some of these
  substances
• Other states have now banned them also

Extent and impacts Toxicity factors and
classes Monitoring Regulation and information
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Happy Earth Day ?