Evolution of Computing Tools ???????

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Evolution of Computing Tools???????

• Sai-Ping Li ???
• Institute of Physics, Academia Sinica
• March 10, 2007

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Stonehenge, which lies 13km north of Salisbury,
England, is believed to have been an ancient form
of calendar designed to capture the light from
the summer solstice in a specific fashion.
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Pebbles were used by the ancients for a variety
of purposes. They are one of the earliest methods
of counting using a physical aide.
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The abacus is one of the earliest devices to be
used in calculation, and still in use, in various
forms, around the world today. ?? --- ??????????
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Counting Board and Abacus ?????? The history of
the abacus probably traced back to ancient
Mesopotamia. The people probably drew lines on
the ground and used pebbles to represent numbers
and do calculations. The counting board is
a piece of wood, stone or metal with carved
grooves or painted lines between which beads,
pebbles or metal discs were moved. The abacus is
a device, usually of wood (plastic, in recent
times), having a frame that holds rods with
freely-sliding beads mounted on them.
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??????????????,??????????????? The person
operating the abacus performs calculations in
their head and uses the abacus as a physical aid
to keep track of the sums, etc.
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Evolutionary Time-line This time-line
shows the evolution from the earliest counting
board to the present day abacus. The evolution of
the abacus can be divided into three ages
Ancient Times, Middle Ages, and Modern Times.
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Ancient Times ????
The Salamis Tablet, the Roman Calculi and
Hand-abacus are from the period c. 300 B.C to c.
500 A.D.
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The Salamis Tablet The oldest surviving
counting board is the Salamis tablet (originally
thought to be a gaming board), used by the
Babylonians circa 300 B.C., discovered in 1846 on
the island of Salamis. ???????,?????????????????
??????1846??Salamis??????
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Counting Board--Pebbles were used for counting
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Middle Ages ?????
The Apices, the coin-board and the Line-board are
from the period c. 5 A.D. to c. 1400 A.D.
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Modern Times ???
The Suan-pan, the Soroban and the Schoty are from
the period c. 1200 A.D to the present.
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 Arabic Multiplication Tables ??????
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John Napier, (1550-1617), in early 1600s took
animal bones and carved the multiples of the
Gelosia method of arithmetic on them by adding
on the diagonal, one could "multiply"
Napiers Bones ?????
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napier's_bones
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Schickard's Calculating clock(1623)--The machine
incorporates a set of "Napier's bones" (on the
cylinders) and a mechanism to add the partial
products (with a carry mechanism).
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Four-Figure Tables ???
In 1614, John Napier discovered the logarithm
which made it possible to perform multiplications
and divisions by addition and subtraction.
1614?,??????????????,???????????????
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1614
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• Slide Rule ???
• 1614?,??????????????,???????????????
• 1620?,????????(Edmund Gunter)??????????????????,?
  ?????????????,?????????
• 1925?,???William Oughtred?????????

John Napier
William Oughtred (1575-1660)
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Straight Slide Rule ?????
Circular Slide Rule?????
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A slide rule consists of three interlocking
calibrated strips. The central strip can be moved
lengthways relative to the other two. A sliding
cursor with an alignment line can record an
intermediate result on any of the scales.
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Division ?? For example, the division of 22 by
2.75. ? 22 2.75
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A Slide Rule is An ANALOG computer ??????????
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(1791 1871)
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Pascal's Pascaline (1642)

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Stepped Drums (1672 Leibniz)
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(First mechanical calculator, 1822)
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(1886)
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Mechanical Calculators ??????
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Computer One who computes! ?????
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Computer Age ???? The first computers were
people! Computer was originally a job title
it was used to describe those human beings
(predominantly women) whose job it was to perform
the repetitive calculations required to compute
such things as navigational tables, tide charts,
and planetary positions for astronomical
almanacs. Computer ?????????,???????????
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ENIAC the "Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator"
Completed in 1946, the first vacuum tube-based
computer, has 18,000 vacuum tubes and takes up
1,800 square feet of space. Considered to be the
first true computer ???????,??18,000????,?????
18,000?????
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Computer Punch Cards ?????
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IBM?????,,?????????????
An IBM Key Punch machine which operates like a
typewriter except it produces punched cards
rather than a printed sheet of paper
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Paper Tape ??
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A typical paper tape reader ?????
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The IBM 7094, a typical mainframe computer ????
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The original IBM Personal Computer (PC)
???IBM????
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Development of Computers??????

• 1936--Turing Machine (Alan Turing)
• 1943--Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)
• 1946--ENIAC
• 1947--Transistor (Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain)
  ???
• 1957--Transistorized Experimental Computer (TX-O)
  
• 1958--Integrated circuit (Jack St. Claire Kilby)
  ????
• 1971--Intel's first microprocessor, the 4004, was
  developed
• 1971--The first microcomputers (PCs) were
  developed
• 1974--Apple I
• 1981--IBM PC ????
• 1988--Laptops ?????
• 1994--DNA Computing Quantum Computing

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Moores Law (????1965, Gordon Moore) Number of
transistors/square inch on integrated circuits
doubles every 18 months. ???????????????????????
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Development of Computer Languages????????

• 1854--British mathematician George Boole devises
  binary algebra.
• 1936--Turing Machine (Alan Turing)
• 1958--Common Business Oriented Language (COBOL)
• 1958--List Processor (LISP)
• 1958--ALGOL
• 1963--Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction
  Code (BASIC)
• 1967--Formula Translation (FORTRAN)
• 1971--PASCAL
• 1972--C (ALGOL-60)
• 1979--Ada
• 1983C

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• Development of Operating Systems
• ????????
• 1969--UNIX
• 1978--APPLE
• 1981--MS-DOS
• 1985Microsoft WINDOWS
• 1991LINUX (Linus Torvalds)

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(Tim Berners-Lee,1989)
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Next Computing Tool---Worldwide
Grid ???????---????
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LCG Service Hierarchy ????

• Tier-2 100 centres in 40 countries
• Simulation
• End-user analysis batch and interactive

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Global Science needs a Global Grid
????????????

• LCG depends on two major science grid
  infrastructures
• EGEE and the US Open Science
  Grid

LCG ???????????????
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What Next? ????????
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