ENCODING PROCESSES CHAPTER 4

1
ENCODING PROCESSESCHAPTER 4

• Lora Rochelle
• Thursday, September 16, 2004

2
INTRODUCTION

• Scientists have been discovering and uncovering
  each part of the human memory system in order to
  help better understand how we encode our
  memories, and retrieve them as well.

3

• Understanding these memory processes can help
  parents to improve the prospect of a higher
  education for their children early in life, and
  help people improve the quality of their memory
  and recollection processes

4
OVERVIEW

• Psychologists refer to storing memories as an
  encoding process--a procedure for transforming
  something a person sees hears, thinks, or feels
  into a memory.

5

• Scientists have determined there are different
  methods in how we lay down our memories. This is
  done through encoding.

6
Shallow EncodingMaintenance Rehearsal
(Craik,1979)

• Repeating information to yourself , such as a
  phone number, is a process of encoding that is
  part of our working, short-term memory most of us
  use when we need to hold a small amount of
  linguistic information in mind for several
  seconds. Repeating a phone number to yourself
  only temporarily stores the information.

7

• Many people do not understand why this type of
  encoding doesn't work for long-term memory -- it
  is due to our utilizing our brain's phonological
  loop, that relies on a part of the brain designed
  only for short-term memory purposes.

8
Elaborative Rehearsal

• If you've ever had trouble remembering something
  you truly wanted to remember, as most of us, you
  probably just view yourself as possessing less
  intelligence than others.

9

• These continued experiences of not being able to
  remember something promotes low self-esteem, not
  to mention embarrassment. What you are really
  missing in the memory encoding process, isn't
  intelligence, but a type of mental glue,
  scientists call elaborative encoding.

10
Elaborative Rehearsal

• In order to encode incoming information, or an
  event, into long-term memory, the best way to do
  this is to link, associate or connect the
  incoming information with something already in
  your memory in order to make it meaningful.
• You can retrieve the memory, because you have an
  actual means to recall it, due to associating,
  linking or connecting the incoming information
  with something already in your memory.

11
Research Suggests

• Research suggest that elaborative rehearsal is
  far superior to maintenance rehearsal for
  long-term recall but that it tends to use
  considerably more of a persons cognitive
  resources than maintenance rehearsal (Craik,
  1979).
• It also suggests that maintenance and elaborative
  rehearsal need to be thought of as representing
  opposite ends on the continuum of rehearsal.

12
Research cont.

• At one extreme of the continuum would be the
  minimal processing needed to repeat a term over
  and over.
• Susan (pg. 66) started at the top of her spelling
  list, reads the first word, and spells it to
  herself over and over. She does this six times
  for each of the 25 words on her list and than
  sets the list aside.

13
Research cont.

• At the other end would be processing activities
  (elaborative rehearsal) in which the
  to-be-learned information was linked with several
  bits of information already in memory.
• An example of elaborative rehearsal in learning
  the spelling words can be seen in how the
  fourth-grade daughter of one of the authors
  learned to spell respectfully (pg 67). She
  connected the word with the lyrics of an old song
  Respect.

14
MEDIATION

• Mediation is one of the simplest elaborative
  encoding strategies.
• Mediation involves tying difficult-to-remember
  items to something more meaningful.
• The original research on mediation in memory was
  based on the learning of paired nonsense
  syllables (e.g., BOZ and BUH).
• Mediation results in deeper, more elaborate
  encoding than simple repetition of new content.

15
Mnemonics

• There are visualization or guided imagery
  techniques you can also use to recall memories.
  You can visualize your mind as having many rooms,
  full of many objects related to your memories, of
  which you can add a new memory by placing it in
  its most appropriate room and location.
• Mnemonics has been used effectively throughout
  history and has played a major role, exerting a
  large influence on artistic and religious life,
  especially during the Middle Ages

16
Mnemonics cont.

• Mnemonics are memory strategies that help people
  remember information. Typically, mnemonics
  involve pairing to-be-learned information with
  well-learned information in order to make the new
  information more memorable.
• Mnemonics helps use learn new information by
  making it easier to elaborate, chunk, or retrieve
  it from memory.
• i before e except after c
• Every Good Boy Does Fine

17
Different Methods of Encoding

• The Peg Method - students memorize a series of
  pegs (pg 70).
• The Method of Loci -use of location to recall
  information (pg 71).
• The Link Method - best for learning list of
  things, form image for each item in the list of
  things to be learned.

18
Different Methods of Encoding

• The First-Letter Method students report using
  this method. Use first letters of to-be-learned
  words to construct acronyms or words.
• The Keyword Method - two separate stages stage
  one - the acoustic link - id keyword. Stage two -
  visual image of the keyword interacting with the
  meaning of the to-be-learned vocabulary word.

19

• Since 1975, a very large amount of research has
  been done on the keyword method.
• In general, results have been positive among
  students of all ages (J.R. Levin, 1986, Raugh,
  1975 Pressley 1977) the keyword method has
  been exceptionally effective in improving the
  learning of students with mild retardation and
  learning disabilities (Mastropieri Scruggs,
  1989).

20
Schema Activation

• Schema Activation refers to various methods
  designed to activate students relevant knowledge
  prior to a learning activity (Pearson, 1984).

21
Conclusion

• Summary of Mnemonics (pg. 74)
• Mnemonics are rhymes, sayings, and other
  procedures designed to make new material
  memorable.
• They help create more elaborate encoding of new
  materials and strong memory traces.

22

• The peg method and the method of loci both depend
  on a well-learned base to which to-be-learned
  information is related.
• The link and story methods put to-be-learned
  items together in a list and rely on the recall
  of the overall image or story to facilitate
  recall.

23

• The first-letter mnemonic chains items together
  by forming a word or acronym from the first
  letters of the words in a to-be-learned list.
• The most powerful and flexible mnemonic is the
  keyword method, which employs interactive imagery
  to form and acoustic and visual link.

24
Importance - Application

• For over two decades there has been an abundance
  of research regarding strategy instruction.
  Originally, most of this research focused on the
  effects of strategy instruction on students with
  learning disabilities. Researchers are currently
  looking at how strategy instruction affects all
  learners.

25
Strategy Instructions Psychology Education

• The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
  (IDEA) of 1997
• and No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 focus
  on improved achievement by all students.

26
Skillstreaming

• There are a variety of methods designed to assist
  teachers in developing programs and curriculum
  focused on social skills training.
• Skillstreaming is one method formed by Ellen
  McGinnis and Arnold Goldstein that systematically
  teaches prosocial skills to young children
  (1990).

27

• McGinnis and Goldstein describe three settings
  where social skills are taught large groups,
  small groups, and individual instruction.
• Large groups consist of twenty or more children
  and are used when teaching a class general
  instructions regarding a new skill.

28

• To allow for role-playing and optimal practice
  time, small groups that include eight to ten
  children are often typically seen.
• Although primarily designed for a group setting,
  children with autism appear to benefit from
  individual instruction. (used in family therapy)

29

• The first step in a Skillstreaming program is to
  acquaint students with the concept of social
  skills and illustrate activities that will be
  performed.

30

• Teaching the new skills includes a four-step
  procedure
• Modeling (showing how to do a skill)
• Role playing (trying the skill with the teacher
  or a peer)
• Performance feedback (talking about how they did)
  
• Transfer training (practicing the skill)

31

• Children with autism need extra help learning
  social skills and they often lack the
  prerequisites to function as part of a group
  (McGinnis and Goldstein, 1990).

32

• There are forty specific skills outlined and
  described in the Skillstreaming manual that range
  from "listening" to "knowing when to tell"

33
References

• Burning, R., Schraw, G., Associates. (2004).
  Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Upper
  Saddler River, NJ Pearson Education, Inc.
• De La Paz, S. (1999). Self-regulated strategy
  instruction in regular education settings
  Improving outcomes for students with and without
  learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities
  Research and Practice, 14, 92-118.
• Pressley, M., Woloshyn, V., Associates.
• (1995). Cognition strategy instruction that
  really improves childrens academic performances.
  Cambridge, MA Brookline Books.