Common Difficulties Encountered by NonNative English Speakers

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Common Difficulties Encountered by Non-Native
English Speakers

• (especially Chinese)

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Tense

• Problem Chinese language does not have tenses
• We discussed this a little yesterday.
• In a scientific paper
• Abstract usually past tense, except introductory
  statement may be present tense
• Introduction usually present tense
• Methods past tense
• Results past tense
• Discussion present tense

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Subject-Verb Agreement

• For complicated sentences, remember to look for
  the subject, where ever it may be, and make the
  verb agree with the subject.
• Read the sentence without all the modifiers and
  clauses to help you
• Diagram the sentence to help you

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Plural Nouns Used as Adjective

• When a plural noun is used as an adjective, it
  becomes singular
• Phenotype of dendritic cells
• cells is a plural noun
• Dendritic cell phenotype
• phenotype is the noun and cells is the adjective
• But cells becomes singular as the adjective
• Dendritic cell population
• population of dendritic cells

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Abbreviations Singular or Plural?

• If a word or term will be used in both the
  singular and plural, then it is better to derive
  the abbreviation from the singular form and add
  an s to make it plural.
• An important effector cell in an immune response
  is the dendritic cell (DC).
• Islet infiltrates consist mainly of T cells but
  also include macrophages, DCs, and B cells.

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Commonly Used Terms

• Suggest to cause you to think about something
• Use when your results point to that direction,
  but you havent totally proven it
• The genetic results suggest that CD103 is a
  candidate gene for the development of type 1
  diabetes.
• Assess to evaluate, but in common speech usually
  refers to estimating a value for something.
• Not a great word to use in science. Use determine
  instead.

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Commonly Used Terms

• Determine to decide or settle, to reach a
  conclusion
• We wanted to determine..
• For experiments that have not yet been done The
  actual binding constant remains to be determined.
• Investigate vs Examine
• investigate to observe or determine in detail
• examine to analyze or carefully observe
• But investigate is a little stronger, and shows
  more action

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Commonly Used Terms

• Demonstrate vs Show
• Demonstrate to prove or make evident by
  reasoning, to describe by experiment
• Show to make visible, to present
• Demonstrate is stronger for science writing
• But use show for
• As shown in Fig. 14
• Not As showed in Fig. 14

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Commonly Used Terms

• Imply vs Implicate frequently misused
• Implicate to connect or involve
• Our results implicate glucocorticoids as a cause
  for
• Imply to say or express indirectly
• The surgeon implied that the disease was fatal.
• Elucidate to make clear
• Usually used with respect to something very
  complicated
• Our long-term goal is to elucidate the role of
  PPAR?2 in the development of type I diabetes.

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Slang/Spoken Language

• Be careful not to use slang or common terms
• getting the DNA sequence
• Change to determining the DNA sequence

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Articles A/An/The

• Which to use a/an or the?
• When to use them, when not to.
• Often it takes an ear for the language, which
  takes time to develop.
• One of the most difficult concepts in writing for
  non-native English speakers, both European and
  Asian.

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Articles A/An/The

• Identify nouns as nouns, as general or specific
• articles are not adjectives
• A/An indefinite, evolved from the word one
• Used only in singular
• If a noun is plural, the a/an is usually omitted
• The specifies the noun
• The picture means a specific picture
• A picture could refer to any picture

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Rules

• Use a or an with singular nouns that name things
  that can be counted but whose specific identity
  is not known.
• A paper, an experiment
• NOT The nurse gave a water to the patient.
• Water cannot be counted. So it should read The
  nurse gave water to the patient.
• Use the with most nouns whose identity is known
  to the reader
• The professor teaching this class
• The experiment that I just described

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Rules

• Do not use the with most singular proper nouns.
• NOT the Professor Dynan,
• NOT the China
• But there are many exceptions
• The United States of America,
• The Peoples Republic of China
• The Medical College of Georgia

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Articles A/An/The

• British and American writing differ somewhat
• British omit the article before singular nouns
  that refer to places or times
• British He attends university.
• American He attends a university.
• But there are some nouns in American English
  where the article is also omitted.
• On Sunday, she always goes to church.
• We, of course, would like you to learn
• American English!!!

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A or An?

• Rule
• Use a before a word that starts with a consonant
• Use an before a word that starts with a vowel (a,
  e, i, o, u)
• But
• It is the sound of, not the letter at, the
  beginning of the word
• A university/an umbrella
• A hero/an honest person

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A/An/The

• Yes, it is confusing.but dont worry.
• You will get the hang of it with practice!!
• ?

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Whether

• Conjunction used in indirect questions to
  introduce an alternative
• Sentence does not take a ? because the question
  is indirect
• These experiments will tell us whether GILZ
  inhibits marker gene expression indirectly
  through down-regulation of PPAR?2.

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Whether

• Do not use whether or not. Or not is redundant.
• NO These experiments will tell us whether or
  not GILZ inhibits marker gene expression
  indirectly through down-regulation of PPAR?2.
• Do not use as to whether. Change to whether.

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Which/That

• Pronouns that introduce adjectival clauses
  (clauses that modify nouns in the sentence)
• Restrictive clauses define the noun
• Use that
• No commas
• Non-restrictive clauses are extra and the
  sentence is meaningful without them
• Use which
• Set the phrase off by commas

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Which/That Examples

• Regulatory CD4 T cells in non-obese diabetic
  mice may include Th2 cells (which/that) secrete
  Il-4, Il-5, Il-6, Il-10, and Il-30.
• Answer Regulatory CD4 T cells in non-obese
  diabetic mice may include Th2 cells, which
  secrete Il-4, Il-5, Il-6, Il-10, and Il-30.
• Because the clause is non-restrictive, is extra.
  Sentence has meaning without the clause.
• Which
• Use commas

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Which/That Examples

• Effector CD4 T cells in non-obese diabetic mice
  may include cells (which/that) secrete Il-2,
  Il-3, Il-12, IFN-? and TNF-?.
• Answer Effector CD4 T cells in non-obese
  diabetic mice may include cells that secrete
  Il-2, Il-3, Il-12, IFN-? and TNF-?.
• The clause is restrictive, defines the cells, is
  needed for the meaning of the sentence.
• That
• No commas.

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Which/That

• Note
• The which/that problem is probably one of the
  most common mistakes that I find among all
  scientists, including Americans!

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Improper Use of That

• That can be a pronoun or an adjective.
• That is the reason why you cant go out tonight.
  (pronoun, is the subject)
• That dog bit me. (adjective, modifies dog)
• As a pronoun, it can be the subject or object of
  a clause.
• The dog that bit me was mean. (subject of
  dependent clause)

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• But if it is the subject of a clause, there must
  be a predicate to the clause.
• The observation of disease protection in these
  NOD congenic mice demonstrates that the existence
  of over 20 individual MHC and non-MHC-associated
  Idd loci on 12 chromosomes.
• No predicate, no verb in that clause
• Should be The observation of disease protection
  in these NOD congenic mice demonstrates the
  existence of over 20 individual MHC and
  non-MHC-associated Idd loci on 12 chromosomes.

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Another example

• We found that lower expression of CCR6/CCR7 in
  bone marrow dendritic cells from NOD mice using
  GE Chemokine cDNA arrays.
• not a dependent clause, not another verb
• Change to We found lower expression of CCR6/CCR7
  in bone marrow dendritic cells from NOD mice
  using GE Chemokine cDNA arrays.
• expression is object of verb found all the rest
  are adjectival, prepositional phrases.

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Misplaced Modifiers

• The early focus of these studies was
  chemoprevention of chemical or photo
  carcinogen-induced in rodent tumorigenesis.
• Carcinogen-induced modifies tumorigenesis (an
  adjective)
• What kind of tumorigenesis? Carcinogen-induced.
• Put it next to tumorigenesis.
• In rodent modifies tumorigenesis. (a
  prepositional, adjectival phrase)
• Answers where

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Misplaced Modifiers

• Original The early focus of these studies was
  chemoprevention of chemical or photo
  carcinogen-induced in rodent tumorigenesis.
• Change to The early focus of these studies was
  chemoprevention of chemical or photo
  carcinogen-induced tumorigenesis in rodents.

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Misplaced Modifiers

• Gastroesophageal reflux disease is a very common
  complaint which may be complicated by the
  development of Barretts esophagus and esophageal
  adenocarcinoma.
• What does the phrase which may be complicated
  describe?
• In this sentence, it describes complaint. But it
  is meant to describe the disease.

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Misplaced Modifiers

• Original Gastroesophageal reflux disease is a
  very common complaint which may be complicated by
  the development of Barretts esophagus and
  esophageal adenocarcinoma.
• Change to Gastroesophageal reflux disease,
  which may be complicated by the development of
  Barretts esophagus and esophageal
  adenocarcinoma, is a very common complaint.

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Be careful of Spellchecker!

• Dr. Michael Shrout presented a plague to Dr.
  Lloyd Cook as Past Chair of the MCG Faculty for
  1997-98. Drs. Campbell and Potter were presented
  a plague in appreciation of their service
• Spellchecker did not catch the gross error
  here..should be plaque, not plague.
• Big difference!!!

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Parallel Construction

• Mutations in RLF2 are associated with severe
  mycobacterial, staphylococcal infection and
  leprosy.
• 3 items in the series, but unparallel
• Change to Mutations in RLF2 are associated with
  severe mycobacterial and staphylococcal
  infections and leprosy.
• 2 items in the series infections (2 types) and
  leprosy, in parallel

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Use of Hyphens

• Compound nouns do not take a hyphen (dash)
• What was the dose response of glucocorticoids in
  bone marrow cells?
• Compound adjectives take a hyphen
• We carried out glucocorticoid dose-response
  experiments in bone marrow.

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Use hyphens in the following common phrases

• Insulin-mediated effect
• DNA-binding protein
• Antibody-specific reaction
• Heat-induced effects
• 12-week-old mice
• Not 12 week-old mice (unless you are talking
  about twelve (a dozen) mice!

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When items in a series becomes confusing

• The use of animals is justified by the importance
  of the disease under study, osteoporosis, and the
  impossibility of performing a comparable study in
  humans.
• How many reasons are there? Looks like 3?
• Importance of disease
• osteoporosis
• impossibility

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In a Series

• Change to The use of animals is justified by the
  importance of osteoporosis and the impossibility
  of performing a comparable study in humans.
• Removed the disease under study. It is
  redundant, anyway.
• An alternative might be to leave the sentence as
  it was but to put osteoporosis in parentheses.

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Serial Comma Rule

• In a series consisting of 3 or more elements,
  separate all the elements with commas. Use a
  comma before the conjunction that joins the last
  two elements.
• Prevents confusion
• However, American newspapers and the British
  usually do not use that final comma!

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Commas Semi-colons

• If the items in the series are long and contain
  commas within them, then use a semi-colon to
  separate the items instead of commas.

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Example

• At least five polypeptides participate in
  mammalian non-homologous end joining. These
  include the two subunits of Ku, which bind to DNA
  ends DNA ligase IV and XRCC4, which form a
  complex that catalyzes strand ligation and the
  DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit,
  which regulates the reaction.

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Upper Case (Capital) Letters

• Chinese does not have upper and lower case
  letters
• General rule is to use upper case letters in all
  words of a title except for articles (a/an/the),
  prepositions, and other minor words.
• However..things are a little different in
  science.

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Upper Case (Capital) Letters

• Some journals use upper and lower case letters in
  the title of a paper, but some just upper case
  the first word
• Apoptosis Associated with Deregulated E2F
  Activity is Dependent on E2F1 and Atm/Nbs/Chk2
  (Molec Cell Biology)
• Modification of the ionizing radiation response
  in living cells by an scFv against the
  DNA-dependent protein kinase (Nucl Acid Res)

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Upper Case (Capital) Letters

• Usually the subsections use upper case on only
  the first word
• Combination of scFv 18-2 and IR inhibits
  microcolony formation
• Names of places or people or famous things use
  upper case for the first letter of each major
  word
• Medical College of Georgia
• Wuhan University School of Medicine
• Statue of Liberty
• Department of Medicine

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Word Order with Numbers

• If there is more than one adjective describing a
  noun, and one of the adjectives is a number, the
  number goes first.
• The reaction contained 2 x 105 purified cells.
• Not The reaction contained purified 2 x 105
  cells.

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• The End